ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR 


A   HANDBOOK   ON   PIPING 

359  Pages  359  Illustrations 

8  Folding  Plates     Postpaid,  $4.00 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

A  TEXTBOOK  ON  MECHANICAL 
DRAWING  AND  MACHINE  DRAWING 

WITH 

CHAPTERS  AND  PROBLEMS  ON  MATERIALS 

STRESSES,    MACHINE   CONSTRUCTION    AND 

WEIGHT  ESTIMATING 


BY 

CARL  L.  SVENSEN,  B.  S. 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR    OF    ENGINEERING    DRAWING    IN    THE    OHIO    STATE 

UNIVERSITY,   JR.   MEM.   A.S.M.E.,   MEM.   S.P.E.E.,   FORMERLY  INSTRUCTOR 

IN  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING   IN  TUFTS  COLLEGE  AND  HEAD 

OF  THE   DEPARTMEMT   OF   MACHINE   CONSTRUCTION 

AT  THE  FRANKLIN  UNION 


SECOND  PRINTING  — CORRECTED 


NEW  YORK 

D.  VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY 

25  PARK  PLACE 

1919 


COPYRIGHT,  IQl8,  IQIQ.  BY 
D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 


THE-PLIMPTON-PKESS 
NOB  WOOD-MA  SS-U-S- A 


T 
35} 


DEDICATED  TO  THE  AUTHORS  FRIEND 

GARDNEK.  CHACE  ANTHONY 

WHOSE  INFLUENCE  AS  AN  ENGINEER. 

AND  TEACHER.  ON  THE  DEVELOPMENT 

OF  AMERJCAN  MECHANICAL  DRAWING 

IS  UNIVERSALLY  RECOGNIZED 


mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm m 


»<Wr;ML  SCWOQl 

MAflUAL  *".rs  1*0  H<i«e 

MMFA  KACtANA,  CAUf  04MM 


PREFACE 

THE  evening  technical  school  has  been  rapidly  developing 
during  recent  years.  From  a  makeshift  it  is  coming  to  occupy 
a  field  distinctly  its  own.  The  ambitious  man  attending  an 
evening  technical  school  is  fully  the  equal  of  his  brother  at  the 
day  technical  school  and  his  worth  is  being  increasingly  realized. 

The  foundation  subjects  —  mathematics,  mechanics,  and  draw- 
ing— require  particular  attention  in  evening  courses,  where  the 
time  may  be  somewhat  limited  and  the  needs  of  the  student 
varied.  This  book  has  been  prepared  for  Ohio  Technical  Draw- 
ing School  students  as  part  of  a  technical  course. 

Progress  in  engineering  work  of  any  kind  depends  upon  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  mechanical  drafting  as  the  language  of 
the  engineering  world.  Its  possibilities  must  be  understood. 
The  mere  drawing  of  lines  and  more  or  less  copying  of  exercises 
or  sketching  from  a  few  models  is  far  from  the  purpose  of  a  draw- 
ing course.  The  value  of  drawing  as  one  of  the  working  tools  to 
be  treasured  and  used  during  a  lifetime  in  the  most  useful  of 
professions,  ENGINEERING,  should  be  realized.  It  is  as  an  aid  in 
the  study,  and  later  use  of  engineering  knowledge,  that  drawing 
finds  its  place.  These  preliminary  remarks  may  serve  to  explain 
the  makeup  of  the  book. 

The  actual  handling  of  the  instruments  can  best  be  taught 
by  careful  individual  instruction  of  each  student,  after  which 
false  or  awkward  motions  should  be  immediately  corrected. 
Inefficiency  in  this  respect  is  one  of  the  most  severe  handicaps  of 
many  "self -made"  draftsmen.  The  treatment  of  the  various 
subjects  is  necessarily  somewhat  brief,  as  it  is  intended  that  per- 
sonal instruction  should  be  given  in  each  subject. 

In  the  first  studies  the  student  is  taught  to  represent  each  object 
in  strict  conformity  to  the  laws  of  projection.  All  lines  are 
drawn,  all  intersections  are  shown,  and  invisible  surfaces  are  all 


viii  PREFACE 

indicated  by  dotted  lines.  For  simple  parts  such  drawings  are 
easily  read  and  they  are  generally  used  in  the  drafting  room. 
When  more  complicated  pieces  are  met  with  or  where  whole 
machines  or  constructions  are  to  be  represented,  such  a  method 
would  lead  to  great  confusion  and  often  would  produce  a  drawing 
which  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  read.  The  time  nec- 
essary would  be  very  great  even  for  an  expert.  In  such  cases 
the  full  lines  representing  the  visible  surfaces  are  shown,  but  the 
intersections  and  invisible  surfaces  are  not  all  drawn  in.  The 
selection  of  what  lines  to  draw  and  what  lines  to  leave  out  is  an 
important  study  in  itself. 

Furthermore  there  are  many  representations  of  parts  which 
are  or  appear  to  be  violations  of  orthographic  projection,  which 
are  used  because  practice  has  shown  that  they  convey  the  idea 
to  the  workman  more  completely  or  easily.  Other  representa- 
tions are  used  to  save  the  draftsman's  time,  or  in  the  interests 
of  simplicity.  Almost  anything  which  will  make  a  drawing  more 
readily  intelligible  is  justified.  This  statement  must  be  used 
with  caution,  as  what  will  seem  plain  to  a  man  familiar  with  the 
work  may  not  be  so  plain  to  the  workman  or  other  reader. 

A  drawing  has  one  great  purpose,  and  that  is  to  be  useful. 
To  this  end  lines  may  be  added  or  left  out,  shading  may  be  used, 
or  notes  may  be  put  on.  As  an  expression  in  the  engineering 
language  each  drawing  should  have  only  one  meaning,  and 
should  state  that  meaning  with  the  least  possible  chance  for 
misinterpretation.  Many  of  these  idiomatic  expressions  of  the 
engineering  language  will  be  considered  in  the  later  chapters. 

The  chapters  on  Materials  and  Stresses,  Machine  Construc- 
tion, and  Estimation  of  Weights  are  brief  treatments  of  subjects 
which  are  necessary  for  the  making  of  intelligent  drawings.  Con- 
siderable elementary  machine  design  is  included  as  belonging  in 
a  practical  treatment  of  mechanical  drafting,  for  the  author  does 
not  look  with  favor  upon  fine  distinctions  between  "subjects." 
It  is  the  "usability"  which  really  counts. 

The  subjects  are  arranged  to  suit  the  author's  convenience, 
but  they  may  be  taken  in  a  different  order  if  desired.  The 
problems  are  placed  in  one  chapter  at  the  end  of  the  book,  so  that 
a  selection  may  be  easily  made.  These  problems  are  suggestive, 
and  may  be  amplified  by  the  teacher,  who  should  make  a  free 
use  of  actual  shop  blueprints  and  castings. 


PREFACE  ix 

The  author  believes  that  the  highest  grade  work  can  be  done 
by  evening  school  men,  and  in  an  experience  of  many  years  has 
always  found  that  they  are  ever  ready  to  meet  the  most  exacting 
requirements  when  satisfied  that  what  they  are  receiving  is  really 
worth  while. 

Appreciation  of  the  helpful  criticisms  of  Prof.  Thos.  E.  French 

is  here  expressed. 

CARL  L.  SVENSEN 
COLUMBUS,  OHIO, 
Sept.  1,  1917. 


CONTENTS 

PREFACE . .      


CHAPTER  I 

DRAWING  INSTRUMENTS  AND  MATERIALS 1 

Instruments  and  Materials  —  Use  of  the  T  Square  and  Triangles  — 
Use  of  the  Scale  —  Drawing  Pencils  —  Use  of  the  Compasses  — 
Use  of  the  Dividers  —  Use  of  the  Ruling  Pen  —  Character  of  Lines. 

CHAPTER   II 

LETTERING 7 

Lettering  —  Gothic  Letters  —  Proportions  and  Forms  —  Letter  Spac- 
ing —  Titles  —  Bill  of  Material. 

CHAPTER   III 

CONSTRUCTIONS 13 

Essential  Constructions  —  Angles  —  Circles  —  Plane  Figures  —  To 
Bisect  a  Line  —  To  Bisect  an  Angle  —  To  Divide  a  Line  into  any 
Number  of  Equal  Parts  —  To  Copy  an  Angle  —  To  Construct  a 
Triangle,  having  given  the  Three  Sides  —  To  Construct  an  Equi- 
lateral Triangle  —  To  Construct  a  Regular  Hexagon  —  To  Con- 
struct a  Regular  Octogon  —  To  Draw  an  Arc  of  a  Circle,  having  a 
Given  Radius,  and  Tangent  to  Two  Given  Lines  —  To  Draw  a 
Circle,  Passing  through  any  Three  Points  not  in  the  same  Straight 
Line  —  To  find  the  Length  of  an  Arc  of  a  Circle  —  To  Draw  a  Tan- 
gent to  a  Circle  at  any  Given  Point  —  To  Draw  the  Arc  of  a  Circle 
of  given  Radius,  Tangent  to  an  Arc  and  a  Straight  Line  —  The 
Ellipse  —  To  Draw  an  Ellipse  by  the  Concentric  Circle  Method  — 
To  draw  an  Ellipse  by  the  Trammel  Method— To  Draw  a  Curve 
having  the  Appearance  of  an  Ellipse  by  Means  of  Circular  Arcs  — 
The  Involute  —  To  Draw  the  Involute  of  a  Triangle  —  To  Draw 
the  Involute  of  a  Circle  —  The  Parabola  —  To  Draw  an  Equilateral 
Hyperbola. 

CHAPTER  IV 

PROJECTIONS 23 

Purpose  of  Drawings  —  Orthographic  Projection  —  The  Planes  of 
Projection  —  Some  Rules  —  Dotted  Lines  —  Auxiliary  Views  — 
Required  Views  —  The  Imaginary  Cutting  Plane  —  Representa- 
tion of  Cut  Surfaces. 


xii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  V 

MATERIALS  AND  STRESSES 31 

Materials  —  Cast  Iron  —  White  Iron  —  Gray  Iron  —  Properties  of 
Cast  Iron  — Wrought  Iron  —  Properties  of  Wrought  Iron  —  Steel  — 
Bessemer  Process  —  Open  Hearth  Process  —  Properties  of  Steel 
—  Malleable  Iron  —  Suggestions  for  Selection  of  Material  —  Loads 
and  Stresses  —  Axial  Stresses  —  Unit  Stresses  —  Modulus  of 
Elasticity  —  Ultimate  Strength  —  Factor  of  Safety  —  Average 
Values. 

CHAPTER  VI 

SCREW  THREADS 40 

Uses  of  Screw  Threads  —  The  Helix  —  Parts  of  a  Screw  —  Right- 
and  Left-hand  Screws  —  Forms  of  Screw  Threads  —  Multiple 
Threads  —  Split  Nut  and  Square  Thread  —  Conventional  Repre- 
sentation of  Screw  Threads  —  Threaded  Holes  —  Strength  of 
Screw  Threads. 

CHAPTER  VII 

BOLTS  AND  SCREWS 48 

U.  S.  Standard  Bolts  —  Bolts  —  Studs  —  Threaded  Holes  —  Machine 
Screws  —  Cap  Screws  —  Cap  Nuts  —  Set  Screws  —  Locking 
Devices. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

RIVETING 57 

Riveting  —  Rivet  Heads  —  Lap  Joints  —  Butt  Joints  —  Calking  — 
Miscellaneous  Connections  —  Rolled  Steel  Shapes. 

CHAPTER  IX 

WORKING  DRAWINGS 62 

Classes  of  Drawings  —  Special  Detail  Drawings  —  How  to  Make  a 
Drawing  —  Tracing  —  Order  for  Inking  Lines  —  Assembly  Draw- 
ings —  Exceptions  to  True  Projection  —  Blueprints. 

CHAPTER  X 

SECTIONS 71 

Sectional  Views  —  Broken  and  Revolved  Sections  —  Location  of 
Sectional  Views  —  Objects  not  Sectioned  —  Dotted  Lines  on  Sec- 
tional Views  —  Sections  of  Ribs  and  Symmetrical  Parts. 

CHAPTER  XI 

DIMENSIONING 77 

Purpose  of  Dimensions  —  Dimension  Lines  —  Elements  of  Dimen- 
sioning —  General  Rules  —  Systems  of  Dimensioning  —  Location 
of  Dimensions  —  Shafting  —  Tapers  —  Small  Parts  —  Methods  of 
Finishing  —  Checking  Drawings. 


CONTENTS  xiii 

±>AOE 

CHAPTER  XII 

MACHINE  CONSTRUCTION 87 

Machine  Operations  —  Drills  —  The  Steam  Engine  —  Pistons  — 
Sliding  Bearings  —  Wear  and  Pressure  —  Stuffing  Boxes  —  Use- 
ful Curves  and  Their  Application —  Fillets  and  Rounds — Arcs  and 
Straight  Lines  —  Flanged  Projections  —  Flange  Edges  —  Flanges 
and  Bolting  —  Keys. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

SKETCHING 98 

Uses  of  Sketching  —  Materials  for  Sketching  —  Making  a  Sketch  — 
Taking  Measurements  —  Some  Ideas  on  Sketching. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

ESTIMATION  OP  WEIGHTS 105 

Accuracy  —  Weights  of  Materials  —  Weight  of  Loose  Materials  — 
Weight  of  Castings  —  Methods  of  Calculation  —  Weight  of  Cylin- 
der Head  —  Weight  of  Plunger  Barrel  —  Weight  of  Forgings. 

CHAPTER  XV 

PIPING 112 

Piping  Materials  —  Pipe  Fittings  —  Standard  Pipe  —  Pipe  Threads. 

CHAPTER  XVI 

INTERSECTIONS 117 

The  Line  of  Intersection  —  Intersection  of  a  Vertical  Prism  and  a 
Horizontal  Prism  —  Intersection  of  a  Vertical  Prism  and  an  Inclined 
Prism,  Visibility  of  Points  —  Intersecting  Cylinders  —  Choice  of 
Cutting  Planes  —  Connecting  Rod  Intersection. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

DEVELOPMENTS 123 

Surfaces  —  Development  of  a  Prism  —  Development  of  a  Cylinder  — 
Development  of  a  Pyramid  —  The  Development  of  a  Cone  —  De- 
velopment of  a  Transition  Piece. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

PICTURE  DRAWING 130 

Isometric  Drawing  —  Isometric  and  Non-Isometric  Lines  —  Angles 
—  Positions  of  the  Axes  —  Construction  for  Circles  —  Oblique 
Drawing. 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XIX 

SHADE  LINE  DRAWINGS 136 

Shade  Lines  —  System  in  Common  Use  —  Surface  Shading  —  Shad- 
ing Screw  Threads  and  Gears  —  Special  Surface  Representations 
—  Patent  Office  Drawing. 

CHAPTER  XX 
DRAWING  QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS  AND  STUDIES 141 

INDEX...  181 


ESSENTIALS   OF   DKAFTING 

CHAPTER  I 
DRAWING   INSTRUMENTS    AND    MATERIALS 

Instruments  and  Materials.  —  Drawing  instruments  and 
materials  should  be  selected  with  care,  and  under  the  guidance 
of  an  experienced  draftsman  or  teacher.  The  really  necessary 
equipment  consists  of  the  following: 

Set  of  case  instruments  comprising: 

6-inch  compasses  with  fixed  needle  point  leg, 

removable  pencil  leg  and  removable  pen  leg, 

5-inch  dividers, 

5-inch  ruling  pen, 

Bow  pencil,  bow  dividers,  bow  pen. 
24-inch  T  square. 
16  "  X  20  "  drawing  board. 
6-inch  45°  triangle. 
10-inch  30°  X  60°  triangle. 
Irregular  curve. 
12-inch  architect's  scale. 
One  dozen  thumb  tacks. 
2  H  and  4  H  or  6  H  drawing  pencils. 
Drawing  paper. 
Erasive  and  cleaning  rubbers. 
Pencil  pointer. 

Black  waterproof  drawing  ink. 
Lettering  pens  and  pen  holder. 
Pen  wiper. 

Use  of  the  T  Square  and  Triangle.  —  The  T  square  is  used  for 
drawing  horizontal  lines,  with  the  head  always  against  the  left- 
hand  edge  of  the  board,  Fig.  1.  The  upper  edge  of  the  T  square 
blade  is  always  used,  and  lines  are  drawn  from  left  to  right.  The 

1 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


triangles  are  used  for  drawing  all  other  lines.  Vertical  lines  are 
drawn  by  placing  a  triangle  against  the  upper  edge  of  the  T 
square  and  drawing  upward  along  the  vertical  edge,  which  should 
be  placed  toward  the  head  of  the  T  square,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

Use  of  the  Scale.  —  The  scale  is  used  for  laying  off  distances. 
Whenever  practicable,  drawings  should  be  made  full  size.     If  a 


Fig.  I 


reduced  scale  must  be  used  to  accommodate  the  size  of  paper, 
choose  one  which  will  show  the  object  clearly,  and  which  will 
not  require  great  crowding  of  dimensions.  For  mechanical 
drafting,  the  architect's  open  divided  scale,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is 
most  used.  There  are  many  forms,  both  flat  and  triangular  in 
section.  The  following  divisions  are  in  general  use,  1/s,  1/i,  3/s, 
1/z,  3/4>  1>  iVa,  and  3  inches  to  the  foot.  The  scale  3  "  =1'  means 
that  the  drawing  is  one  fourth  the  size  of  the  object,  or  that  each 


Fig.  3 


one  fourth  inch  on  the  drawing  represents  1  inch  on  the  object. 
In  this  case,  the  3  inches  is  divided  up  into  12  parts,  each  of 
which  represents  1  inch.  These  parts  are  further  divided  to 
represent  quarter  inches  and  other  fractions.  The  double  mark 
(")  following  a  figure  means  inch  or  inches;  the  single  mark  (') 
means  foot  or  feet.  A  common  scale  graduated  to  y32  of  an 
inch  may  be  used  for  many  reductions.  In  such  cases  use  the 
half  inch  for  an  inch  in  drawing  one  half  size;  the  quarter  inch 
for  an  inch  in  drawing  one  fourth  size,  etc.  For  half  size  one 
sixteenth  becomes  one  eighth,  and  similarly  for  other  divisions. 


DRAWING  INSTRUMENTS  AND  MATERIALS        3 

Fig.  3  shows  the  distance  2  feet,  &/2  inches,  laid  off  with  the 
scale  of  3"  =  1'. 

Drawing  Pencils.  —  It   is  necessary   to   have   pencils   of  the 

right  degree  of  hardness  and  properly  sharpened.     For  lettering, 


Fig,  5 


Fig.  6 


figuring,  laying  out,  etc.,  a  long  conical  point  should  be  used. 
A  2  H  pencil  will  be  found  satisfactory.  For  the  drawing  itself, 
one  4  H  pencil  and  one  6  H  pencil,  carefully  sharpened,  are  needed. 
After  removing  the  wood,  Fig.  4,  the  lead  is  made  slightly  conical, 
Fig.  5,  and  then  formed  as  in  Fig.  6,  using  fine  sandpaper  or  a 
file.  Fig.  7  shows  enlarged  side  and  front  views  of  the  lead. 


Use  of  the  Compasses. — The  compasses,  Fig.  8,  are  used 
for  drawing  large  circles.  The  needle  point  should  be  adjusted 
with  the  shoulder  downward  and  so  that  the  point  extends  about 
VM  inch  beyond  the  pen  point,  Fig.  9.  A  4  H  or  6  H  lead  should 
then  be  sharpened  as  for  the  drawing  pencil,  and  placed  in  the 
pencil  leg.  Remove  the  pen  point  from  the  compasses,  insert 


4  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

the  pencil  leg,  and  fasten  it.  Then  adjust  the  lead  so  that  the 
end  of  it  is  about  Vw  inch  above  the  needle  point,  Fig.  10.  The 
joints  in  the  legs  are  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  point  and 
pencil  perpendicular  to  the  paper.  The  compasses  should  be 
operated  with  one  hand  (the  right  hand).  The  needle  point 
should  be  placed  in  the  center,  and  the  marking  point  revolved 
clockwise.  Once  around  is  enough,  starting  at  the  point  in- 
dicated in  Fig.  11. 

The  bow  instruments  are  used  for  small  circles  and  divisions. 
The  method  of  setting  the  points  and  using  is  the  same  as  for 
the  large  compasses  and  dividers. 

Use  of  the. Dividers.  —  The  dividers  are  used  for  transferring 
distances  and  for  dividing  lines.  They  should  be  handled  with 


Full  Size 
J 

Fig.  12.'  Fig.  13- 

the  right  hand.  When  dividing  a  line,  the  points  should  be 
revolved  in  alternate  directions,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  12.  To 
divide  a  line  into  three  parts,  first  set  the  dividers  at  a  distance 
estimated  to  be  about  one  third.  Try  it,  and  if  too  short,  increase 
the  distance  between  the  divider  points  by  one  third  of  the  re- 
maining distance.  If  too  long,  decrease  the  distance  between 
the  divider  points  by  one  third  of  the  .distance  which  they  extend 
beyond  the  end  of  the  line.  Repeat  the  operation  if  necessary. 

The  Use  of  the  Ruling  Pen.  —  The  ruling  pen  is  used  for  inking 
the  straight  lines,  after  the  pencil  drawing  is  finished.  Ink  is 
placed  between  the  nibs  of  the  pen  by  means  of  a  quill  which  is 
attached  to  the  ink  bottle  stopper.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  any  ink  from  getting  on  the  outside  of  the  pen.  The 
proper  amount  of  ink  is  shown  in  Fig.  13.  The  pen  should  be 
held  in  a  vertical  position,  and  guided  by  the  T  square  or  triangle. 
It  may  be  inclined  slightly  in  the  direction  of  the  line  which  is 


DRAWING  INSTRUMENTS  AND  MATERIALS        5 

being  drawn,  but  the  point  must  always  be  kept  from  the  angle 
formed  by  the  paper  and  the  guide.  Do  not  hold  the  pen  too 
tightly,  or  press  against  the  guide.  Both  nibs  of  the  pen  must 
touch  the  paper.  Frequent  cleaning  of  the  pen  is  necessary  to 
obtain  good  lines.  The  same  methods  apply  to  the  compass 
and  bow  pens. 

Character  of  Lines.  —  All  pencil  lines  should  be  fine,  clear,  and 
sharp.  For  most  purposes  continuous  pencil  lines  may  be  used. 
The  character  and  weight  of  ink  lines  for  use  on  drawings,  may 
be  found  by  reference  to  Fig.  14. 

A F  

B G  

C H  

D J 


E K 

Fig.  i '4-. 

A .  Full  line  for  representing  visible  surfaces. 

B.  Dotted  line  used  with  A  for  representing  invisible  surfaces. 

Dots  about  Vie  inch  long  and  very  close  together. 

C.  Center  line  —  very  fine  dot  and  dash. 

D.  Witness  line  —  short  dashes. 

E.  Dimension  line — long  dashes,  or  fine  full  line.     D  and  E 

are  often  made  the  same. 

F.  Fine  line  for  shaded  drawings. 

G.  Dotted  line  for  shaded  drawings. 

H.  Shade  line  for  shaded  drawings,  about  three  times  thick- 
ness of  fine  line. 

J.  and  K.  for  special  purposes,  representing  conditions  not 
specified  above. 

When  shade  lines  are  not  used,  a  fairly  wide  line  should  be 
adopted  as  wearing  better,  and  giving  better  blueprints.  The 
width  of  line  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  drawing.  Large 
simple  drawings  require  a  wide  line,  while  small  intricate  draw- 


6  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

ings  necessitate  narrower  lines.  Drawings  which  are  large  and 
still  have  considerable  detail  in  parts  require  more  than  one 
width  of  line.  An  experienced  draftsman  will  use  wide  lines 
for  the  large  and  simple  parts,  reducing  them  for  the  complicated 
places  in  such  manner  that  the  different  widths  of  lines  are  not 
noticeable.  The  student  is  cautioned  to  proceed  slowly  and 
strive  for  a  uniform  width  of  line  until  experience  teaches  discre- 
tion. 

Center  lines  are  drawn  very  fine,  and  are  composed  of  dots 
and  dashes.  All  symmetrical  pieces  should  have  a  center  line. 
All  circles  should  have  both  horizontal  and  vertical  center  lines. 

Much  information  concerning  the  many  different  kinds  of 
drawing  devices  used  by  draftsmen  for  saving  time  and  other 
purposes  can  be  found  in  the  catalogues  of  drawing  material 
companies. 


CHAPTER  II 
LETTERING 

Lettering.  —  The  subject  of  lettering  in  connection  with  work- 
ing drawings  is  of  great  importance.  Neat,  legible  letters,  made 
free  hand  and  with  fair  speed,  are  required.  This  chapter  will 
deal  with  such  letters.  Those  who  wish  to  pursue  the  subject 
further  should  procure  a  good  book  on  lettering,  such  as  French 
&  Meiklejohn's  "Essentials  of  Lettering,"  published  by  McGraw- 
Hill  Company,  New  York,  or  Daniels'  "Freehand  Lettering," 
published  by  D.  C.  Heath  &  Company,  Boston,  Mass.  Either  of 
these  books  may  be  obtained  for  $1.00. 

Great  care  and  continual  practice  are  necessary  to  do  good 
lettering,  but  the  appearance  of  neatness,  the  greater  ease  of 
reading,  and  lessened  liability  of  mistakes,  make  up  for  the  extra 
time  and  work. 

Commercial  Gothic  Letters.  —  Commercial  gothic  and  lower 
case  letters  or  small  letters  are  the  forms  most  used  by  engineers 
and  draftsmen.  These  are  shown  in  Fig.  15,  with  the  proportions 
and  directions  for  drawing  the  various  lines.  The  vertical  capi- 
tals and  lower  case  letters  are  shown  in  Fig.  16.  The  same  pro- 
portions and  order  of  strokes  apply  to  the  vertical  letters.  The 
inclined  letters  should  have  a  slope  of  about  3  to  8,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  17.  Some  draftsmen  use  the  60°  slope,  but  this  does  not 
give  as  pleasing  a  letter  (Fig.  18). 

In  all  cases  very  light  pencil  guide  lines  should  be  drawn  to 
limit  the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  letters.  The  size  of  the  letters 
is  determined  to  some  extent  by  the  character  of  the  work,  but 
for  most  drawings  the  capitals  should  be  Vs  inch  high,  and  the 
small  letters  about  two  thirds  as  high  (Fig.  17).  For  penciling 
use  a  2  H  pencil,  with  a  well  sharpened  round  point.  For  inking, 
a  ball  point  pen  may  be  used  for  fairly  large  letters,  and  Gillotts 
404  or  303  for  small  letters.  The  pen  may  be  dipped  into  the 
ink  and  the  surplus  shaken  back  into  the  bottle,  or  the  quill 
may  be  used  as  with  the  ruling  pen.  For  good  work,  the  pen 

7 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


\—<5—\ 


6—  I        U-5.P--J 


,\\f 

i  Vi 

Utf^l 


Q'& 

&' "" 


r  ^  3- 


c  d  ejf  g  h 
\k  I  m  n  op  q  r 
\s  t  u  v  w  x=y  z 

Fig.  15 

point  must  be  kept  clean,  requiring  frequent  wiping.     The  pen 
point  should  be  kept  pointed  toward  the  top  of  the  paper. 

Proportions  and  Forms.  —  The  proportions  and  shapes  of  the 
various  letters  should  be  studied  and  drawn  to  a  large  scale. 
For  purposes  of  study,  the  letters  are  divided  into  groups.  The 
following  points  should  be  observed.  Rounded  letters,  such  as 


LETTERING 


I  LT  H  F  E  NM 
Z  YA  K  V-WX 
O  0  C  G  U  "j  D 
B  P  R  S  I  2  3 
4567898 
abed  efghij 
klmnopqrs 
t  u  v  w  x  y  z 

Fig.  16 

C,  J,  0,  Q,  and  S,  may  extend  very  slightly  outside  of  the  limiting 
lines.  Pointed  letters,  like  A,  V,  and  W,  may  have  the  point 
extending  very  slightly  above  or  below  the  guide  lines.  The 
horizontal  bar  in  the  letters  B,  E,  F,  H,  and  R  is  very  slightly 
above  the  middle,  and  for  the  letter  P  it  is  very  slightly  below 


10 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


the  middle  of  the  vertical  height.  For  the  letter  A  the  bar  is 
placed  about  one  third  the  height  of  the  letter.  The  letter  W 
is  wider  than  it  is  high.  The  two  outside  strokes  of  the  M  are 
parallel. 

Letter  Spacing.  —  The  spacing  between  the  letters  when 
combined  to  form  words  will  vary  with  different  arrangements. 
The  only  general  rule  which  can  be  given  is  that  the  area  between 


Fig.  /8 


the  letters  should  be  about  equal.  A  few  illustrations  will  be 
given,  showing  the  positions  of  some  combinations  of  letters. 
When  such  letters  as  A  and  T,  or  A  and  V,  are  used,  they  should 
in  general  be  placed  close  together,  as  in  Fig.  19.  A  few  words 
are  shown  in  Fig.  20.  In  the  lines  marked  WRONG  the  letters  are 
equal  distances  apart.  In  the  lines  marked  RIGHT  the  letters 
are  spaced  so  that  the  areas  between  them  are  about  equal.  The 


AT  A 


combination  of  letters  in  each  word,  or  the  combination  of  words 
in  a  line,  will  determine  the  spacing  of  the  letters. 

Titles.  —  The  matter  of  titles  for  drawings  is  subject  to  great 
variation.  The  titles  for  detail  drawings  may  or  may  not  con- 
tain the  name  and  location  of  the  concern.  The  name  of  the 
machine,  its  size  and  number,  the  names  of  the  details,  scale, 
date,  and  names  or  initials  of  the  draftsman  and  engineer,  should 
be  given.  An  example  is  shown  in  Fig.  21.  Assembly  drawings 
generally  have  more  elaborate  titles.  Good  titles  cannot  be 
made  by  rule,  though  a  few  suggestions  may  be  of  assistance. 
Jt  is  often  advisable  to  center  the  lines  composing  the  title.  This 


LETTERING 


11 


RUN 

RU 

LAT 

LAT 

PA 

PA 


WRONG 


RIGHT 


WRONG 


RIGHT 


:R 

R 


WRONG 


RIGHT 


Fig.  20 


may  be  done  by  counting  from  each  end  of  each  line  toward  the 
center,  and  placing  the  middle  letter  or  space  on  the  center  line. 
The  line  can  then  be  completed  by  working  in  opposite  directions 
from  the  center  line.  The  important  facts  should  be  given  due 


500   GALLON 
STEAM  JACKETED  KETTLE 


SCALE    l^ 
DRAWN  BY 
TRACED  BY    W.  E. 
CHECKED  BY  C.S. 


APPROVED 
DATE  Sept.  /2.  J9/7 
ORDER  NO.  B-462 
R  EV I S  E  D  Jan. 


Draw.  No.  4-C-145 

Fig.  21 


12 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


prominence.  This  may  be  done  by  using  large  letters,  by  using 
heavier  or  blacker  letters,  by  wide  spacing  between  letters,  or 
by  using  extended  letters.  The  element  of  time  should  be  con- 
sidered in  the  selection  of  letters.  In  general,  the  title  should 
be  placed  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the  drawing,  and 


OHIO    TECHNICAL 
DRAWING    SCHOOL 
COLUMBUS.             OHIO. 

CYLINDER  FOR 
4*5  VERT    ENGINE 
Fu/1  Size 

Drawn  by     J.  H 
Traced  by    J  f(.               - 
Approved  by     T^f"<f 
Dote  Sept.   IS,  19  1  '7 

rig.  S2 

may  or  may  not  be  "boxed  in"  (Fig.  21).  Some  concerns  use  a 
title  extending  across  the  end  of  the  drawing,  in  which  case  it 
forms  a  "record  strip"  (Fig.  22). 

Bill  of  Material.  —  A  bill  of  material  is  often  put  upon  each 
detail  drawing  in  connection  with  the  title.     Sometimes  a  separate 


PART 
No 

NAME:  OF  PART 

No 
WANTED 

MATERIAL 

PATTERN 
No. 

1 

Spind/e 

/ 

Steel 

— 

2 

Spur   Center 

1 

Steel 

— 

3 

Cap  Screw 

4 

Steel 

— 

4 

Cone  Set  Screw 

1 

Steel 

— 

5 

Box   Pins 

2 

Steel 

— 

6 

Thrust  Screw 

1 

Steel 

— 

7 

Clamp  Screw 

1 

Steel 



a 

Box 

3 

Brass 

K-4-5 

9 

Washer 

1 

Brass 

W-/33 

to 

Thrust  Check  Nut 

t 

Steel 

Fig.  23 

sheet  is  made  containing  a  list  of  drawings,  material,  number 
required,  pattern  number,  location,  etc.,  for  the  entire  machine 
or  construction.  Both  methods  may  be  used  together.  The 
advantages  of  a  separate  list  are  apparent  in  certain  classes  of 
machines  where  some  drawings  are  used  for  many  different  ma- 
chines. Bolts,  pins,  keys,  and  similar  small  parts  are  often 
given  a  number,  which  is  used  to  designate  them.  The  applica- 
tion and  uses  of  lists  are  so  varied  that  they  must  be  learned  for 
the  company  where  one  is  employed.  A  material  list  is  shown 
in  Fig.  23. 


CHAPTER  III 
CONSTRUCTIONS 

Essential  Constructions.  —  Geometry  forms  the  basis  of  the 
constructions  used  in  the  making  of  drawings.  A  knowledge  of 
some  of  the  principles  of  geometry  is  therefore'  essential.  A 
point  indicates  position  in  space.  W-hen  a  point  is  moved  it 


Fbra//e/  Lines 


rig.  25 


Fig.  26 


generates  a  line,  which  may  be  either  straight  or  curved.  A 
surface  may  be  formed  by  moving  a  line.  A  plane  surface  is  one 
which  will  contain  two  intersecting  straight  lines.  Two  straight 
lines  are  said  to  be  parallel  when  they  are  everywhere  the  same 
distance  apart  (Fig.  24). 

Angles.  —  When  two  lines  cross  they  form  angles.  The  size 
of  the  angle  is  determined  by  the 
amount  of  opening  between  the 
lines.  The  angle  A,  in  Fig.  25,  is 
greater  than  the  angle  B.  If  the 
lines  are  revolved  about  their  in- 
tersection, so  that  the  angle  A  is 
made  equal  to  the  angle  B,  then 
both  angles  are  called  "right" 
angles  (Fig.  26).  The  angles  C 
and  D  are  also  right  angles,  so 
that  all  four  angles  are  equal. 
As  shown,  each  angle  is  one 
fourth  the  way  around  the  point  of  intersection. 

13 


F'g.  2  7 


When  a  right 


14 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


angle  is  divided  into  90  equal  small  angles,  each  of  these  small 
angles  is  called  a  "degree."  Then  it  takes  4  times  90,  or  360, 
degrees  to  go  all  the  way  around  the  point  where  the  lines  cross. 
Circles.  —  A  circle  is  a  curved  line  formed  by  moving  one 
point  around  another  point  and  at  a  constant  distance  from  it 
(Fig.  27).  The  curved  line  is  called  the  circumference.  The 
constant  distance  is  called  the  radius,  and  the  fixed  point  is  called 


Equilateral-  A/I  sides 


Isosceles-  Two 
sides  equal. 


Scalene  -  All  sides 
different 

Fig.  28 


Right   Triangle  -  One  ong/e 
is  a  right  angle. 


the  center.  Lines  drawn  from  the  circumference  to  the  center 
form  angles,  which  are  measured  in  degrees.  Two  lines  crossing 
each  other  at  the  center  of  the  circle,  and  making  equal  angles 
with  each  other,  form  four  right  angles,  so  that  a  circle  is  said  to 
contain  360  degrees  (written  360°).  A  piece  of  the  circumference 
is  called  an  arc.  Other  features  of  a  circle  are  indicated  in 


Fig.  27.    The  length  of  the  circumference  is  equal  to  the  diameter 
times  3.1416.     (3.1416  is  called  "pi,"  and  is  often  written  TT.) 

Plane  Figures.  —  A  plane  figure  made  up  of  three  lines  is  called 
a  triangle.  There  are  several  kinds  of  triangles  (Fig.  28).  All 
three  angles  of  any  kind  of  a  triangle,  when  added  together,  are 
always  equal  to  180  degrees.  The  sides  of  the  right  triangle 
have  a  very  useful  relation  to  each  other,  which  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  28.  If  the  length  of  each  of  the  two  sides  is  squared  and 
added  together,  the  sum  will  be  equal  to  the  square  of  the  length 
of  the  hypotenuse;  thus,  in  the  figure, 


or 


(3)2+(4)2  =  (5)2 
9+16  =25 


CONSTRUCTIONS 


15 


A  plane  figure  made  up  of  four  lines  is  called  a  quadrilateral. 
When  the  opposite  sides  are  equal  and  parallel,  the  figure  is 
called  a  parallelogram.  There  are  several  kinds  (Fig.  29.) 

Other  regular  plain  figures  are  shown  in  Fig.  30. 

Solids  may  have  almost  any  form.  The  names  and  appear- 
ances of  a  number  of  solids  are  shown  in  Fig.  31. 

There  are  many  geometrical  constructions  which  are  of  use  in 


Fig.  3O 


mechanical  drawing.  Detailed  instructions  for  the  solution  of 
some  of  these  problems  follow.  These  problems  should  be  studied 
carefully  and  be  fully  understood.  They  should  be  worked  out 
with  a  very  sharp  pencil,  fine  lines,  and  extreme  accuracy. 

To  bisect  a  Line.  —  (To  divide  a  line  into  two  equal  parts) : 
Given  the  line  AB  (Fig.  32).     Using  points  A  and  B  as  centers, 


Righf  Ob/ique  Truncated  Hexagonal  Frustum  of  a  Right  Circular 

Prism  Prism  Tr/anguJar  Prism  Pyramid         7r/angt//or  Pyramid  Can* 

Fig.  31 

and  a  radius  greater  than  one  half  the  length  of  the  line,  draw 
the  arcs  1  and  2.  Through  the  points  where  these  arcs  cross 
each  other,  draw  the  line  CD,  which  will  divide  the  line  AB  into 
two  equal  parts.  The  lines  CD  and  AB  form  right  angles,  and 
are  said  to  be  perpendicular  to  each  other.  The  steps  used  in 
solving  this  problem  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  32.  Any  given  line 
is  shown  at  a.  At  b  is  shown  the  given  line  and  the  arc  of  a  circle 
having  a  radius  greater  than  one  half  the  line,  and  its  center  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  line.  At  c  another  arc  has  been  drawn, 
having  the  same  radius  as  before,  but  with  its  center  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  line.  At  d  a  line  has  been  drawn  through  the  inter- 
sections of  the  two  arcs,  dividing  the  given  line  into  two  equal 
parts.  It  is  not  necessary  to  draw  the  whole  of  the  arcs  or  the 


16 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

usual    appearance    of    the    completed 


intersecting    lines.     The 
problem  is  shown  at  e. 

To  bisect  an  Angle  (Fig.  33).  —  Given  the  angle  AOB.  With 
0  as  a  center,  and  any  radius,  draw  an  arc  intersecting  the  sides 
of  the  angle  in  points  1  and  2.  With  points  1  and  2  as  centers, 
and  a  constant  radius,  draw  arcs  cutting  each  other  at  C.  The 
line  OC  will  bisect  the  angle. 

To  divide  a  Line  into  Any  Number  of  Equal  Parts  (Fig.  34).  — 


Fig.  3  2 

Given  the  line  5'B.  It  is  required  to  divide  the  line  into  five 
equal  parts.  From  one  end  of  the  line  draw  another  line,  making 
an  angle  with  it,  such  as  B5.  On  B5,  using  any  convenient 
setting  of  the  dividers,  step  off  five  equal  spaces.  Join  the  end 
of  the  last  space  with  the  end  of  the  given  line.  Through  points 
4,  3,  2,  and  1  draw  lines  parallel  to  5,  5',  intersecting  the  given 


Fig.35 


line  at  points  4',  3',  2',  and  1'.  The  line  5'£  will  then  be  divided 
into  five  equal  parts. 

Another  method  of  dividing  a  line  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  35. 
From  one  end  of  the  given  line  draw  a  perpendicular  such  as 
5' A,  using  the  triangle  and  T  square.  Next  place  the  scale  in 
such  a  position  that  one  end  of  any  five  equal  divisions  is  at 
point  B,  and  the  other  is  on  the  line  &A.  Mark  opposite  each 
of  the  divisions,  and  through  each  mark  draw  a  vertical  line 
intersecting  the  given  line,  which  will  then  be  divided  into  five 
equal  parts. 

To  copy  an  Angle  (Fig.  36).  —  Given  the  angle  AOB.  To  con- 
struct another  angle  equal  to  it.  Draw  a  line  A'O'.  With  0  as 
a  center  and  any  radius,  draw  an  arc  cutting  the  sides  of  the 


CONSTRUCTIONS 


17 


angle  at  1  and  C.  With  0'  as  a  center,  and  the  same  radius, 
draw  the  arc  1'C".  With  1'  as  a  center,  and  a  radius  equal  to 
the  chord  1C,  draw  an  arc  cutting  the  arc  1'C"  at  C'.  Draw 
C'O'.  Angle  A'O'B'  will  then  be  equal  to  the  angle  AOB. 

To  construct  a  Triangle,  having  given  the  Three  Sides  (Fig. 
37).  —  Given  the  three  lines  A,  B,  C.    Draw  line  A',  equal  to  line 


Fig.  36 


Fig.  37 


Fig.  38 


A,  With  1  as  a  center,  and  a  radius  equal  to  line  B,  draw  an  arc. 
With  point  2  as  a  center,  and  a  radius  equal  to  line  C,  draw  another 
arc,  cutting  the  first  arc  at  point  3.  Join  point  3  with  points  1 
and  2,  completing  the  required  triangle. 

To  construct  an  Equilateral  Triangle  (Fig.  38).  —  Given  one  side 
of  the  triangle,  A.     Draw  line  1-2,  equal  in  length  to  line  A. 


Fig.  4-1 


With  1  and  2  as  centers,  and  radius  equal  to  line  A,  draw  arcs 
intersecting  at  3.  Join  point  3  with  points  1  and  2,  completing 
the  required  triangle. 

To  construct  a  Regular  Hexagon  (Fig.  39).  —  If  the  distance 
across  corners  is  given,  draw  a  circle  having  a  radius  equal  to 
one  half  this  distance.  Draw  the  diameter  102.  With  points 
1  and  2  as  centers,  and  the  same  radius,  draw  arcs  cutting  the 
circle  at  points  3,  5,  4,  and  6.  Join  these  points  to  complete  the 
required  hexagon.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  radius  used  as  a 
chord  divides  the  circumference  into  six  equal  parts.  The  30  X 
60  triangle  may  be  used  to  construct  a  hexagon.  Explain  how. 


18 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


To  construct  a  Regular  Octagon  (Fig.  40).  —  Given  the  square 
1-2-3-4.  With  the  corners  of  the  square  as  centers,  and  a  radius 
equal  to  one  half  the  diagonal,  draw  arcs  cutting  the  sides  of  the 
square.  Join  the  points  thus  found,  completing  the  required 
octagon.  An  octagon  may  be  constructed  inside  of  a  circle  by 
using  the  45-degree  triangle.  Explain  how. 

To  draw  an  Arc  of  a  Circle,  having  a  Given  Radius,  and  tangent 
to  Two  Given  Lines  (Fig  41).  —  Given  the  lines  AB  and  BC  and 


Fig.  4-4 


the  radius  R.  Draw  DE  parallel  to  BC,  and  at  a  distance  equal 
to  R  from  it.  Draw  FG  parallel  to  AB,  and  at  a  distance  equal 
to  R  from  it.  Where  DE  and  FG  cross,  gives  point  0,  the  center 
of  the  required  arc. 

To  draw  a  Circle,  Passing  through  Any  Three  Points  (not  in  the 
Same  Straight  Line)  (Fig.  42).— Given  points  A,  B,  and  C.  Draw 
lines  AB  and  BC.  Bisect  lines  AB  and  BC,  using  the  construc- 
tion of  Fig.  32.  Where  the  bisecting  lines  cross  at  0  is  the  center 
of  the  required  circle.  The  radius  is  the  distance  from  0  to  any 
of  the  three  points.  . 

To  find  the  Length  of  an  Arc  of  a  Circle,  and  measure  it  on  a 
Straight  Line  (Fig.  43).  —  First  method  (when  angle  AOB  is 
less  than  60  degrees):  Given  arc  AB  with  center  at  0.  From 
one  end  of  the  arc  draw  the  tangent  line  AC.  Draw  line  A  B 
and  extend  it  to  D,  making  AD  equal  to  one  half  of  line  AB. 
With  D  as  a  center,  and  radius  DB,  draw  arc  BC.  Then  AC 
will  be  a  straight  line  equal  in  length  to  the  arc  AB.  Second 
method:  Draw  tangent  AC  as  before.  Set  the  dividers  at  a 
small  distance.  Start  at  point  B,  and  space  off  the  points  1,  2,  3, 
etc.,  along  the  arc,  until  point  5  is  reached.  (Point  5  may  come 
at  any  place  near  the  point  A.)  Do  not  remove  the  dividers  from 
the  paper.  Step  back  along  the  line  the  same  number  of  spaces, 
as  shown.  The  line  AC  will  then  be  very  close  to  the  length  of 


CONSTRUCTIONS 


19 


the  arc  AB.    By  taking  small  spaces,  the  chords  may  be  assumed 
equal  to  the  arcs. 

To  draw  a  Tangent  to  a  Circle  at  a  Given  Point  on  the  Circle 
(Fig.  44). — Given  point  P.  Place  one  triangle  with  its  hypotenuse 
passing  through  the  given  point,  and  the  center  of  the  circle  as 
indicated  in  first  position.  Using  the  other  triangle  as  a  base, 
turn  the  first  triangle  over  into  the  second  position,  and  move  it 
until  its  hypotenuse  passes  through  point  P,  when  the  tangent 


AP  may  be  drawn.     The  base  triangle  must  be  held  firmly  in 
place  in  the  one  position. 

To  draw  the  Arc  of  a  Circle  of  Given  Radius,  tangent  to  an  Arc 
and  a  Straight  Line  (Fig.  45).— Given  arc  AB,  line  CD  and  radius 
R.  Draw  line  EF  parallel  to  CD,  and  at  a  distance  R  from  it. 
With  radius  #2  =  #1+  R  and  center  0' ,  draw  an  arc  cutting 
line  EF  at  0,  the  center  of  the  required  tangent  arc.  Note  the 
points  of  tangency,  which  are  marked  T.  The  point  of  tangency 
of  any  two  arcs  is  always  on  the  line  joining  their  centers.  This 
is  further  illustrated  in  Figs. 
46  and  47,  where  the  points 
of  tangency  are  marked  T. 

The  Ellipse.  —  An  ellipse 
(Fig.  48),  is  a  curve  formed 
by  a  point  moving  so  that 
the  sum  of  its  distances  from 
two  fixed  points  is  a  constant. 


Fig.  48 


Each  of  the  two  points  ¥\  and 
Fz  is  called  a  focus.  The 
longest  line,  AB,  drawn  through  the  center  is  called  the  major 
axis.  The  shortest  line,  CD,  is  called  the  minor  axis.  The  con- 
stant distance  is  equal  to  the  major  axis.  A  tangent  to  an 
ellipse  at  any  point  may  be  constructed  by  drawing  lines  from 


20 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


the  point  to  the  foci.  Extend  the  lines  and  bisect  the  angle 
FiPE,  or  the  angle  F2PG.  This  bisecting  line  PH  is  the  re- 
quired tangent.  A  line  through  the  point  P  and  perpendicular 
to  the  tangent  is  called  a  normal.  The  major  and  minor  axes 

of  an  ellipse  being  given,  the 
foci  may  be  located  by  draw- 
ing an  arc  with  C  or  D  as  a 
center,  and  a  radius  equal  to 
one  half  of  the  major  axis. 
B  This  arc  will  cut  the  major 
axis  at  the  foci. 

To  draw  an  Ellipse  by  the 
Concentric  Circle  Method 
(Fig.  49.)  —  Given  the  major 
and  minor  axes  AB  and  CD. 
With  0  as  a  center,  draw  cir- 
f/g.  49  c}eg  Caving  the  major  and 

minor  axes  as  diameters.  Draw  radial  lines  OeE,  OfF,  etc.,  divid- 
ing the  circles  into  a  number  of  parts.  Where  the  radial  lines 
cut  the  large  circle,  draw  perpendicular  lines.  Where  the  radial 
lines  cut  the  small  circle,  draw  horizontal  lines.  The  intersection 
of  a  vertical  and  horizontal  line  from  the  same  radial  line  will 
determine  a  point  on  the  ellipse,  as  indicated  at  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 
Determine  as  many  points  as  necessary,  and  draw  the  curve 
through  them  very  lightly 
free  hand.  It  may  then  be 
strengthened,  using  an  ir- 
regular curve. 

To  draw  an  Ellipse  by 
the  Trammel  Method  (Fig. 
50). — Given  the  major  and 
minor  axes  AB  and  CD. 
On  a  small  strip  of  paper 
mark  off  one  half  the  minor 
axis  and  one  half  the  major  axis,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  Place 
the  point  3  on  the  minor  axis  and  the  point  2  on  the  major 
axis.  Make  a  mark  on  the  paper  opposite  the  point  1.  Move 
the  point  3  along  the  minor  axis,  keeping  the  point  2  on  the 
major  axis  and  moving  it  as  indicated  by  the  arrows.  The  point 
1  will  then  trace  out  the  required  ellipse.  The  usual  method 


.  SO 


CONSTRUCTIONS 


21 


is  to  place  the  trammel  in  a  number  of  positions,  and  make 
marks  on  the  paper  opposite  the  successive  positions  of  point  1. 
To  draw  a  Curve  having  the  Appearance  of  an  Ellipse,  by  means 
of  Circular  Arcs  (Fig.  51).  —  Given  the  major  and  minor  axes  AB 
and  CD.  On  the  minor  axis  lay  off  03  and  01,  each  equal  to  the 
difference  between  the  major  and  the  minor  axis.  On  the  major 
axis  lay  off  02  and  04,  each  equal  to  three  fourths  of  03.  With 
point  1  as  a  center,  and  a  radius  equal  to  1C,  draw  the  arc  EGG. 


With  3  as  a  center,  and  the  same  radius,  draw  the  arc  JDH. 
With  2  and  4  as  centers,  and  a  radius  equal  to  2B,  draw  the  arcs 
GBH  and  EAJ. 

The  Involute.  —  Tie  a  piece  of  string  about  a  lead  pencil  point. 
Place  the  triangular  scale  with  its  end  resting  upon  a  piece  of 
paper.  Wind  the  string  about  the  scale,  keeping  the  pencil 
point  toward  the  paper.  Hold  the  scale  firmly  with  one  hand. 
Keeping  the  string  tight,  and  the  pencil  point  on  the  paper,  un- 
wind from  the  scale.  The  curve  thus  formed  is  the  involute 
of  a  triangle.  The  involute  of  any  other  figure  may  be  obtained 
by  unwinding  a  string  from  the  desired  form. 

To  draw  the  Involute  of  a  Triangle  (Fig.  52).  —  With  A  as  a 
center,  and  AC  as  a  radius,  draw  an  arc  until  it  reaches  the  ex- 
tension of  side  AB  at  point  1.  With  point  B  as  a  center,  and 
IB  as  a  radius,  draw  an  arc  from  1  until  it  reaches  the  extension 
of  side  CB  at  point  2.  The  curve  may  be  continued  by  increasing 
the  radius  each  time  that  it  passes  the  extension  of  one  of  the 
sides.  Compare  this  curve  with  the  one  drawn  by  means  of  the 
triangular  scale  and  string. 


22  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

To  draw  the  Involute  of  a  Circle  (Fig.  53).  —  Divide  the  arc  of 
a  circle  into  a  number  of  equal  parts.  Draw  the  radial  lines  OA, 
OB,  etc.  At  the  end  of  each  radial  line  draw  a  tangent.  Starting 
at  point  A,  lay  off  the  distance  Al  on  the  tangent  equal  to  the 
arc  AG,  using  the  second  method  of  Fig.  43.  Starting  at  B,  lay 
off  the  distance  B2  on  the  tangent,  equal  to  the  arc  BAG.  Con- 
tinuing, lay  off  on  each  tangent  a  distance  from  the  point  of 
tangency  equal  in  length  to  the  arc  of  the  circle,  measured  from 
the  point  of  tangency  to  the  point  G. 

The  Parabola.  —  A  parabola  is  a  curve  formed  by  a  point  mov- 
ing so  that  its  distance  from  a  line  called  the  directrix  is  always 
equal  to  its  distance  from  a  point  called  the  focus  (Fig.  54).  To 
draw  a  parabola,  having  given  the  directrix  CA  D,  and  the  focus  F. 
Draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  directrix,  and  at  any  distance  from  it. 
Using  this  distance  as  a  radius,  and  F  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc, 
cutting  the  parallel  line  at  point  1.  Draw  as  many  lines  as  may 
be  necessary,  parallel  to  the  directrix,  and  using  their  distances 
from  the  directrix  as  radii,  with  F  as  a  center,  draw  arcs  cutting 
them,  thus  locating  points  on  the  required  parabola. 

To  draw  an  Equilateral  Hyperbola  (Fig.  55).  —  Given  the  point 
P  and  the  axes  G  0  and  0  H.  Draw  horizontal  and  vertical  lines 
through  point  P.  On  each  side  of  point  P  step  off  equal  distances 
PF,  PA,  AB,  etc.  Draw  lines  from  0  to  each  of  the  points 
thus  determined.  Where  line  OA  crosses  the  vertical  line  at 
point  a,  draw  a  horizontal  line.  Through  point  A  draw  a  vertical 
line  intersecting  the  horizontal  line  just  drawn  at  point  1,  a  point 
on  the  required  curve.  Horizontal  and  vertical  lines  drawn 
from  the  diagonals  will  locate  other  points  on  the  curve,  as  shown 
at  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6. 


CHAPTER  IV 


PROJECTIONS 

Purpose  of  Drawings.  —  The  representation  of  objects  and 
constructions  having  three  dimensions  upon  a  surface  having 
two  dimensions  has  been  accomplished  in  many  ways,  some  of 
which  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  56. 

Drawings  have  two  principal  uses  which  are: 

I.   To  tell  the  shape, 
II.   To  tell  the  size. 

A  drawing  tells  the  shape  by  the  position  of  the  various  lines, 


Orthographic 


Fig. 


These  numbers  are  called 


while  numbers  are  used  to  tell  the  size, 
dimensions. 

Orthographic  Projection.  —  Most  engineering  drawings  are 
made  in  "orthographic  projection."  By  this -means  the  shape 
and  proportions  of  a  construction  may  be 
accurately  defined.  The  number  of  views 
depends  upon  the  object  or  construction  to 
be  described.  This  can  be  understood  by 
reference  to  Fig.  57,  which  shows  two  views 
of  a  cylinder.  The  upper  view  shows  the 
circular  form  and  the  lower  view  shows 
the  height  of  the  cylinder.  Notice  that  the 
diameter  of  the  upper  view  is  the  width 
of  the  lower  view,  and  that  the  two  views 
are  included  between  parallel  vertical  lines, 
three  views  is  shown  on  Fig.  58. 

23 


Height- 


An  object  requiring 
Note  the  arrangement  of  the 


24 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


views.     The  top  and  front  views  are  included  between  parallel 

vertical  lines,  and  the  front  and  side  views  are  included  between 

parallel  horizontal  lines. 
The  Planes  of  Projection.  —  The  method  of  obtaining  the 

views  and  getting  them  hi  the  correct  relative  positions  will  be 

explained  in  con- 
nection with  Figs. 
59  and  60.  Con- 
sider two  glass 
planes,  one  hori- 
zontal and  one 
vertical  (Fig.  59), 
with  an  object 
placed  in  the  angle 
thus  formed.  By 


S/cfe 


F/g. 


looking  through  the  vertical  plane  the  front  of  the  object  may  be 
seen,  and  if  this  view  is  marked  out  on  the  glass,  it  is  called  the 
front  view,  elevation,  or  vertical  projection.  If,  instead  of  look- 


Line 


F/g.  59 


ing  through  the  glass,  we  consider  that  lines  have  been  drawn 
from  every  point  in  the  object  perpendicular  to  the  vertical 
plane,  the  object  is  said  to  be  projected  out  to  the  vertical 
plane.  The  lines  are  called  projection  lines.  By  joining  the 


PROJECTIONS 


25 


points  in  which  the  projection  lines  touch  the  vertical  plane  the 
front  view  will  be  obtained.  In  the  same  manner  the  top  view, 
plan,  or  horizontal  projection  may  be  found  by  projecting  up 


\ 


Fig.  6O 

to  the  horizontal  plane.  If  the  joint  between  the  two  planes  is 
now  taken  as  an  axis,  the  horizontal  plane  may  be  revolved  up 
about  the  axis  until  it  is  in  the  same  plane  with  the  vertical 
plane.  This  brings  the  top  view  directly  above  the  front  view. 

By  placing  a 
third  glass  plane 
at  one  side  of  the  P 

object,  and  per- 
pendicular to  the 
other  two  planes, 
as  shown  in  Fig. 
60,  a  side  view  a 


r 

t 

1 

—  L  - 

t 

—  »- 

T 
1 


Right  Side 


may  be  obtained. 
The  plane  con- 
taining this  side 
view  can  be  re- 
volved about  the 
axis  shown  until 
it  is  in  the  same  plane  with  the  vertical  plane.  This  brings  the 
side  view  on  the  same  line  with  the  front  view,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
61,  where  the  three  views  are  in  their  correct  positions. 

Some   Rules.  —  The   following   points   should   be   thoroughly 
understood,  as  projection  is  the  basis  for  all  shop  drawings. 


26 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Note  the  three  views  of  the  point  P  in  Figs.  59,  60,  and  61. 
Locate  other  points  in  the  same  manner  until  all  points  on  the 
object  are  accounted  for  in  each  of  the  three  views. 

Horizontal  distances  (as  L)  show  the  same  in  the  top  and 
front  views. 

Vertical  distances  (as  H)  show  the  same  in  the  front  and  side 
views. 


a 


fnV  fnl     fPi 

(^J    Lr^J     ^ 

r^-, 
ITTI  || 

Lj I  1  {  1 


Fig.  62 

Vertical  distances  (as  W )  in  top  view  are  horizontal  distances 
(W)  in  the  side  view. 

The  top  view  is  the  same  length  as  the  front  view. 

The  top  view  is  the  same  width  as  the  side  view. 

The  front  view  is  the  same  height  as  the  side  view. 

The  front  of  the  side  view  is  toward  the  front  view. 

The  front  of  the  top  view  is  toward  the  front  view. 

The  arrows  (Fig.  61 )  indicate  the  relation  of  the  front  view  to 
the  other  views. 

Note  the  difference  between  the  left  side  view  and  the  right 
side  view. 

Lines  which  represent  visible  surfaces  are  full  lines. 

Lines  which  represent  invisible  surfaces  are  dotted  lines.  (See 
left  side  view,  where  it  is  necessary  to  look  through  the  object 
in  order  to  locate  the  horizontal  dotted  line.) 

The  top  and  front  views  of  any  point  are  always  in  the  same 
perpendicular  line. 

The  front  and  side  views  of  any  point  are  always  in  the  same 
horizontal  line. 

Dotted  Lines.  —  The  question  of  dotted  lines  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  62,  where  two  views  of  several  objects  are  shown.  A  is  a 
square  prism  with  a  square  hole  all  the  way  through;  B  is  a 
cylinder  with  a  circular  hole  all  the  way  through;  C  is  a  square 
prism  with  a  square  hole  extending  from  the  top  down  to  the 
depth  shown  in  the  front  view  (note  that  the  top  views  of  A 
and  C  are  the  same,  and  that  the  front  views  show  the  extent 


PROJECTIONS 


27 


of  the  holes);  D  is  a  cylinder  with  a  hole  extending  up  part 
way  from  the  bottom,  as  shown  in  the  front  view,  therefore  the 
hole  shows  dotted  in  the  top  view;  E  is  a  square  prism  with  a 
cylindrical  boss  on  top;  F  is  a  cylinder  with  a  smaller  cylinder 
extending  downward  from  the  under  side,  thus  the  small  cylinder 
is  dotted  in  the  top  view;  compare  F  and  D,  which  show 
that  it  is  necessary  to  read  both  views  to  determine  the  object. 
A  large  number  of  all  sorts  of  projection  problems  should  be 
solved  to  obtain  a  thorough  understanding  of  orthographic  pro- 
jection. 


Axis  or  Center  i/'ne 


rig.  63 


Auxiliary  Views.  —  The  three  planes  just  described  are  per- 
pendicular to  each  other,  like  the  boards  coming  together  at  the 
corner  of  a  box.  The  faces  of  an  object  which  are  parallel  to  the 
three  planes  are  projected  to  these  planes  in  their  true  size 
and  shape.  It  is  often  desirable  to  show  the  true  shape  of  a  face 
which  is  not  parallel  to  any  of  the  three  regular  planes.  In  such 
cases,  Fig.  63,  an  extra  plane  called  an  auxiliary  plane  may  be 
used.  This  extra  plane  is  placed  so  as  to  be  parallel  to  the  in- 
clined face.  The  inclined  face  is  then  projected  to  the  auxiliary 
plane  by  perpendicular  projecting  lines,  as  shown  in  Fig.  63. 

The  distances  W  and  S  then  show  in  their  true  length  and  the 
hole  shows  the  true  shape  in  which  it  cuts  the  inclined  face.  Com- 
pare the  auxiliary  plane  with  the  side  plane.  Notice  that  the 
distance  W  shows  in  its  true  length  in  the  side  plane,  but  that  the 
vertical  dimension  is  H,  which  is  shorter  than  S.  The  auxiliary 


28 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


plane  and  the  side  plane  may  be  revolved  about  the  center  line 
or  axis  until  they  are  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  paper.  This 
has  been  done  in  Fig.  64,  where  the  object  is  shown  by  its  projec- 
tions. Note  the  location  of  the  points  1,  2,  3,  and  4.  The  center 

line  of  the  auxiliary  view 
is  parallel  to  the  inclined 
face.  The  width  W  is  the 
same  in  the  auxiliary  view 
and  in  the  side  view.  The 
points  1,  2,  3,  and  4  are 

Tr—  -?r — ^  7* -s — p — ! — 2TT    located   in   the   auxiliary 
\^~ ^^\  ^^  ^'  ~(^\          view  by   projecting  lines 

perpendicular  to  the  in- 
clined face  which  cross  the 
center  line  at  right  angles. 
The   distances   on   either 
side  of  the  center  line  are  then  obtained  from  the  side  view 
and  measured  on  the  corresponding  projection  lines  of  the  auxiliary 
view,  as  illustrated  for  point  4. 
Compare  Figs.  63  and  64  carefully. 

Required  Views.  —  A  bracket  is  shown  in  pictorial  form  in 
Fig.  65,  together  with  its  three  views  in  orthographic  projection. 
Note  the  relation  of  the  views.  A  picture  of  an  object  is  shown 


Pig.  64- 


fig.  65  r/g.  66 

in  Fig.  66.  Since  most  of  its  detail  is  inclined,  a  side  view  and 
auxiliary  view  are  used.  In  this  way  true  shapes  are  shown. 
Other  views  are  not  needed.  They  would  be  somewhat  difficult 
to_  draw  and  would  not  add  anything  to  what  is  already  shown. 
Very  good  practice  is  to  be  had  by  deciding  the  number  of  views 


PROJECTIONS 


29 


and  proper  treatment  for  such  machine  parts  and  constructions 
as  one  encounters. 

The  Imaginary  Cutting  Plane.  —  It  is  not  always  possible  to 
indicate  easily  and  clearly  the  interior  construction  of  a  machine 


Fig.  71 


69 


or  part  by  means  of  dotted  lines.  In  such  cases  resort  is  had  to 
imaginary  cutting  planes  which  reveal  the  hidden  parts. 

Such  an  imaginary  cutting  plane  passing  through  the  object 
of  Fig.  67  is  shown  in  Fig.  68.  The  part  in  front  of  the  cutting 
plane  is  removed  in  Fig.  69,  leaving  the  object  as  shown  in  Fig. 
70,  where  the  surfaces  cut  by  the  plane  are  indicated  by  parallel 
inclined  lines.  Such  a  surface  is  said  to  be  cross-hatched  or 
section-lined.  The  view  is  called  a  section,  or  sectional  elevation. 
In  orthographic  projection  the  two  views  are  drawn  as  hi  Fig.  71, 
where  the  section  occupies  the  same  position  relative  to  the  top 
view  as  the  front  view  which  it  replaces.  Note  that  the  top 
view  is  shown  complete.  The  top  edge  of  the  cutting  plane  is 
shown  as  a  center  line  in  the  top  view.  The  rules  of  projection 
apply  to  sectional  views.  The  object  is  imagined  to  be  cut  by  a 
plane  and  the  part  in  front  of  the  plane  removed  in  order  to  show 
the  cut  surfaces  and  the  details  beyond  the  cutting  plane. 

Representation  of  Cut  Surfaces.  —  The  surfaces  which  lie  in 
the  imaginary  plane  are  indicated  by  a  series  of  parallel  lines. 
Different  pieces  are  shown  by  changing  the  direction  of  the  lines. 
The  width  of  spacing  for  section  lines  is  determined  by  the  area 
to  be  sectioned.  Different  materials  are  sometimes  indicated  by 


30 


ESSENTIALS   OF   DRAFTING 


different  forms  of  section  lining.     Fig.  72  gives  the  forms  sug- 
gested by  a  committee  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 


Orig/na/       ftf/ing 
Earfh       ' 


Of  her  Moter/o/s 


Fig.  72 

Engineers.  The  character  of  sectioning  should  not  be  depended 
upon  to  tell  the  material.  It  should  always  be  given  in  a  note 
if  it  is  not  perfectly  evident. 


CHAPTER  V 
MATERIALS   AND   STRESSES 

Materials.  —  Engineering  constructions  must  carry  loads  and 
transmit  motions.  For  such  purposes  various  materials  are  made 
use  of  according  to  their  adaptability.  The  most  used  material 
is  iron  in  its  different  forms  —  cast  iron;  wrought  iron;  steel; 
and  the  steel  alloys.  In  addition  to  iron  there  are  the  yellow 
metals,  or  brass  and  bronze  compositions,  white  metals  or  babbitt, 
tin,  lead,  etc.,  and  the  various  timbers. 

It  is  important  for  the  draftsman  to  know  something  of  the 
properties  of  these  materials,  the  methods  of  forming  into  ma- 
chine parts,  and  the  relative  expense,  so  that  a  proper  selection 
of  material  may  be  made  for  the  particular  case  in  hand. 

Cast  Iron.  —  Cast  iron  is  a  hard,  brittle,  granular  substance 
obtained  by  burning  the  impurities  from  various  ores,  the  most 
common  being 

Magnetic  Oxide,  or  Magnetite 
Ferric  Oxide,  or  Red  Hematite 
Brown  Hematite 
Spathic  Ore 

Cast  iron  contains  carbon  and  various  impurities,  such  as 
silicon,  manganese,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  etc. 

White  Iron.  —  There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  cast  iron : 
white  cast  iron,  in  which  the  carbon  is  chemically  combined,  and 
gray  cast  iron,  in  which  the  carbon  is  free  or  mixed  in  the  form 
of  graphite.  White  cast  iron  contains  a  small  amount  of  carbon, 
and  is  very  hard  and  brittle.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
wrought  iron  and  steel.  White  cast  iron  is  very  difficult  to 
machine. 

Gray  Iron.  —  Gray  cast  iron  contains  some  carbon  in  chemical 
combination  and  a  considerable  amount  in  the  form  of  graphite, 
which  is  mixed  with  the  iron.  Gray  iron  is  softer  than  white 
iron  and  is  easily  machined.  It  contains  from  0.5  per  cent  to 
1  per  cent  of  combined  carbon  up  to  2  per  cent. 

31 


32 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Properties  of  Cast  Iron.  —  Cast  iron  is  the  most  useful  of 
metals,  as  it  can  be  readily  melted  and  cast  into  any  desired  form 
by  first  making  a  mold.  For  this  reason  it  is  adapted  for  making 
complicated  shapes.  Its  cheapness  renders  it  available  where 


Fig.  73 


Fig.  74 


rigidity  and  weight  are  required.  Cast  iron  cannot  be  welded 
and  has  very  little  elasticity,  so  that  it  is  not  adapted  for  use 
where  shocks  and  sudden  loads  are  to  be  cared  for. 

Cast  iron  has  a  crystalline  structure,  and  when  cooling  the 
crystals  form  at  right  angles  to  the  surface.  Where  square 
corners  are  encountered  the  arrangement  is  as  indicated  in  Fig. 


Fig.  75 

73,  in  which  fracture  is  likely  to  occur  along  a&,  called  the  plane  of 
fracture.  This  may  be  prevented  by  rounding,  as  in  Fig.  74. 
Cast  iron  expands  at  the  moment  of  solidifying,  but  shrinks  upon 
cooling.  This  action  sets  up  cooling  strains  in  the  casting,  espe- 
cially if  there  exists  a  considerable  variation  in  the  thickness  of 
the  section  in  the  different  parts  of  the  piece.  For  this  reason 
a  uniform  cooling  arrangement  is  always  desirable,  and  sudden 
changes  in  section  should  be  avoided. 


MATERIALS  AND  STRESSES 


33 


Cast  iron  is  about  four  times  as  strong  in  compression  as  it  is  in 
tension. 

Wrought  Iron.  —  Wrought  iron  is  almost  pure  iron,  obtained 
by  melting  pig  iron  and  squeezing  out  the  impurities  while  it  is 
in  a  plastic  state.  For  such  purposes  a  puddling  furnace  (Fig. 
75)  is  used.  Iron  is  put  into  the  furnace  and  melted.  When  in  a 
plastic  state  it  is  taken  in  the  form  of  a  ball  on  the  end  of  a  puddle 
bar  and  squeezed  or  pounded  and  heated  again.  This  process  is 


UMDER  PKE.SSUKE. 


Fig.  76 


continued  until  most  of  the  impurities  are  burned  or  squeezed 
out.  It  is  then  rolled  into  bars  or  billets.  These  billets  are 
further  rolled  into  rods  of  various  shapes  and  sizes  called  merchant 
bars.  This  rolling  process  gives  the  iron  a  fibrous  structure  due 
to  a  certain  amount  of  impurities  which  remain  after  the  puddling. 
Wrought  iron  contains  a  very  small  amount  of  carbon. 

Properties  of  Wrought  Iron.  —  Wrought  iron  is  malleable  and 
is  the  best  material  to  withstand  shocks.  It  stretches  and  so 
gives  warning  before  breaking.  It  cannot  be  cast,  but  must  be 
rolled  or  forged  into  the  forms  required.  For  this  reason  it  is 
not  adapted  for  complicated  shapes.  It  can  be  welded,  punched, 
bent,  etc.  Owing  to  its  method  of  manufacture,  it  is  expensive 


34  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

and  is  supplanted  to  a  considerable  extent  by  mild  steel,  which 
has  a  similar  composition.  Wrought  iron  is  almost  equally  strong 
in  tension  and  compression.  It  is  stronger  in  the  direction  of  the 
fibers  than  across  them. 

Steel.  —  Steel  is  made  by  burning  carbon  and  impurities  out 
of  pig  iron  and  then  adding  the  desired  amount  of  carbon.  An- 
other method  is  to  add  carbon  to  wrought  iron.  There  are  two 
processes  of  making  steel  from  pig  iron:  the  Bessemer  process 
and  the  open-hearth  process. 

Bessemer  Process.  —  In  the  Bessemer  process  from  five  to 
twenty  tons  of  melted  pig  iron  is  put  into  a  converter  (Fig.  76). 
Air  under  a  pressure  of  about  twenty  pounds  per  square  inch  is 
caused  to  pass  in  streams  up  through  the  metal,  and  the  carbon 
and  impurities  are  burned  out.  This  requires  about  ten  minutes, 
and  leaves  practically  pure  iron,  to  which  the  proper  carbon 
content  is  added  by  putting  in  liquid  spiegeleisen  (white  iron)  or 
ferromanganese.  This  makes  it  into  steel,  which  is  poured  into 
ingots.  These  ingots  are  rolled  into  blooms  and  other  desired 


Open-hearth  Process.  —  By  this  process  large  amounts  of 
steel  are  made  at  one  time,  generally  about  fifty  tons.  Steel, 
scrap,  and  pig  iron  are  melted  on  the  hearth  of  a  Siemens  regen- 
erative furnace.  The  metal  is  kept  in  agitation  by  chemical  reac- 
tions, caused  by  adding  iron  scale  or  scrap  iron  which  furnish  the 
necessary  carbon. 

Properties  of  Steel.  —  Steel  is  composed  of  iron  and  carbon  in 
chemical  combination.  It  has  a  uniform  granular  structure  and 
may  be  formed  to  shape  by  forging,  rolling,  or  casting.  Steel 
varies  greatly  in  its  qualities,  depending  upon  the  carbon  content. 
It  is  sometimes  designated  as 

Soft  Steel  about  0.19  %  carbon 

Medium  Steel  "   0.30% 

Hard  Steel  "    0.75  %  up  to  1.8  %  carbon 

Steel  having  less  than  0.25%  is  frequently  called  mild  steel. 

Malleable  Iron.  —  Small  parts  of  cast  iron  can  be  made  less 
brittle  by  being  surrounded  by  iron  scale  or  some  form  of  an 
oxide  of  iron  and  kept  at  a  bright  red  heat  for  over  sixty  hours. 
In  this  way  some  of  the  carbon  is  removed  and  the  material  is 
made  to  resemble  wrought  iron.  It  is  used  for  small  pieces  which 


MATERIALS  AND  STRESSES  35 

cannot  be  easily  forged.     Hardware  castings,  pipe  fittings,  etc., 
are  often  made  of  malleable  iron. 

Suggestions  for  Selection  of  Material.  —  The  best  method  of 
learning  the  proper  materials  to  be  used  is  by  observation.  The 
material  best  adapted  cannot  always  be  used,  because  of  cost, 
method  of  shaping,  etc.  Ask  why,  when  a  special  material  is 
used.  The  "factor  of  cost"  is  always  present  —  the  "factor 
of  safety"  should  always  be  considered  first.  Observe  broken 
parts  of  machines  as  a  valuable  means  of  obtaining  sound  in- 
formation. The  use  of  special  metals  is  often  one  of  trial  and 
observation.  Some  things  which  influence  the  selection  of  ma- 
terial are  given  below : 

Method  of  Shaping 

Casting  Cost  of  Pattern 

Forging — Drop  Forging  Die 

Pressing — Stamping 

Extrusion  —  Drawing 

Rolling 

Number  Required 
Method  of  Finishing 
Strength  Required 
Kind  of  Loads 
Moving  or  Stationary  Parts 
Lightness  or  Weight 
Wear 
Where  liquids  or  gases  are  used  the  chemical  action  must  be 

considered. 

Loads  and  Stresses.  —  The  materials  used  in  machines  are 
subject  to  various  loadings  which  must  be  resisted  by  these  ma- 
terials. The  internal  resistance  must  be  equal  to  the  external 
or  applied  load,  or  the  part  will  fail.  There  are  many  ways  of 
applying  the  load,  each  bringing  into  play  a  different  form  of 
resistance  by  the  material.  This  resistance  is  called  stress. 
Stress  is  a  measure  of  the  strength  of  the  material  to  resist  an 
external  load.  There  are  three  kinds  of  simple  stresses:  tension, 
compression,  and  shear. 

Axial  Stresses.  —  A  bar  is  a  portion  of  material  having  a 
uniform  section,  such  as  a  cylinder  or  prism.  When  a  load  is 
applied  to  a  bar  so  as  to  be  uniformly  distributed  it  is  called  an 


36 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


axial  load.  Such  a  load  produces  a  direct  stress  in  the  bar.  The 
section  made  by  passing  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the 
bar  is  called  a  cross  section.  The  area  of  this  section  is  the  cross- 
sectional  area  and  is  usually  spoken  of  as  the  area.  It  is  generally 
measured  hi  square  inches. 

When  a  load  is  applied  to  a  bar  so  that  it  tends  to  lengthen 
the  bar  it  produces  a  tensile  stress  (Fig.  77).  When  the  applied 
load  tends  to  shorten  or  compress  the  bar  it  produces  a  com- 


A7\ 


Fig.  7B 


Fig.  79 


pressive  stress  (Fig.  78).  When  the  applied  load  acts  at  right 
angles  to  the  bar  and  tends  to  push  one  cross-sectional  plane  by 
another  it  produces  a  shearing  stress  (Fig.  79). 

Unit  Stresses.  —  In  order  that  the  strength  of  various  materials 
may  be  compared,  the  strength  of  a  bar  one  inch  square  is  used 
as  a  unit.  The  strength  of  such  a  bar  is  called  the  unit  stress, 
or  stress  per  square  inch  of  cross-sectional  area.  The  stress  is 
usually  given  in  pounds  per  square  inch.  To  find  the  unit  stress, 
divide  the  applied  load  by  the  cross  sectional  area,  or: 

Let  A  =  area  of  cross  section  in  square  inches. 
P  =  total  load  in  pounds. 
/  =  stress  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Then  the  unit  stress  is 

=  P  (load) 
A  (area) 


MATERIALS  AND  STRESSES  37 

Thus,  if  a  rod  has  an  area  of  3J/2  square  inches  and  is  subject  to  a 
load  of  35,000  pounds,  it  has  a  unit  stress  of 

/  =  -   =  3-^?  =  10,000  Ib.  per  square  inch. 
A          3.5 

Elastic  Limit.  —  From  the  formula  given  above  it  follows  that 
if  the  load  is  doubled,  the  unit  stress  will  also  be  doubled.  This 
means  that  the  unit  stress  is  proportional  to  the  load.  By  ex- 
periment it  has  been  found  that  this  law  does  not  hold  for  all 
loads,  but  only  up  to  a  certain  load  (depending  upon  the  material). 
This  load  or  limit  is  called  the  elastic  limit  and  is  expressed  in 
pounds  per  square  inch.  For  stresses  less  than  the  elastic  limit 
the  increase  or  decrease  in  length  of  the  bar  is  directly  propor- 
tional to  the  stress.  The  increase  or  decrease  in  length  is  called 
the  strain,  and  the  total  strain  divided  by  the  length  is  called 
the  unit  strain. 

Let          I  =  length  in  inches 

e  =  change  in  length  in  inches 

s  =  unit  strain 
Then 

e 

Modulus  of  Elasticity.  —  Below  the  elastic  limit  both  the 
unit  stress  and  the  unit  strain  are  proportional  to  the  load,  so 
that  they  bear  a  constant  relation  to  each  other.  This  relation 
is  expressed  as  the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the  unit  stress 
by  the  unit  strain,  which  will  give  a  constant  called  the  modulus 
of  elasticity  and  represented  by  E. 

Then          „      Stress"      / 

Ei    =  =  — 

Strain       s 

p 

Ultimate  Strength.  —  Ihe  formula  /=  —  gives  the  unit   stress 

A 

of  a  material  for  a  given  load.  If  the  load  is  sufficiently  large 
the  piece  will  break  or  rupture.  The  value  of  /  when  rupture 
takes  place  is  called  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  material. 

Factor  of  Safety.  —  The  ultimate  strengths  of  materials  as 
well  as  the  elastic  limits  are  not  constants,  although  most  of  them 
are  pretty  well  known  from  large  numbers  of  tests.  However, 


38 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


it  is  not  desirable  to  stress  a  material  too  near  its  elastic  limit, 
as  there  may  be  imperfections  or  lack  of  uniformity.  The  manner 
in  which  the  load  is  applied  also  affects  the  stress  which  it  is  safe 
to  impose  upon  a  given  material.  For  this  reason  various  "factors 
of  safety"  are  used.  A  factor  of  safety  is  a  number  obtained  by 
dividing  the  ultimate  strength  of  a  material  by  the  unit  stress 
actually  imposed  upon  it.  The  actual  stress  is  referred  to  as 
the  safe  working  stress.  Often  the  safe  working  stress  is  ob- 
tained by  dividing  the  ultimate  strength  by  a  suitable  factor  of 
safety,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  loading. 

Average  Values.  —  The  values  given  in  the  following  tables 
are  averages  and  will  serve  for  purposes  of  computation  in  the 
absence  of  more  definite  figures. 


ELASTIC  LIMITS 


Pounds  per 

Square  Inch 

Tension 

Compression 

Cast  Iron  

6000 

20000 

Wrought  Iron  
Steel  

25,000 
35,000 

25,000 
35,000 

MODULI  OF  ELASTICITY 


Pounds  per  Square  Inch 


Cast  Iron 

15000000 

Wrought  Iron 

27000000 

Steel 

30000000 

ULTIMATE  STRENGTHS 


Pounds  per  Square  Inch 


Tension 

Compression 

Shear 

Cast  Iron  
Wrought  Iron  
Steel  

20,000 

50,000 
60,000  to  100,000 

90,000 
50,000 
60,000  to  150,000 

18,000 
40,000 
50,000  to  80,000 

MATERIALS  AND  STRESSES 


39 


FACTORS  OF  SAFETY 


Live  Load 

Material 

Dead  Load 

One  Kind  of 

Stress 

Alternate 
Tension  and 
Compression 

Varying 
Loads. 
Shocks 

4 

6 

10 

15 

Wrought  Iron 

and  Steel.  .  . 

3 

5 

8 

12 

CHAPTER  VI 
SCREW   THREADS 

Uses  of  Screw  Threads.  —  A  screw  is  a  cylindrical  bar  having 
a  helical  projection.  The  form  of  this  helical  projection  varies, 
according  to  the  uses  to  which  the  screw  is  put.  Screws  are 
used  for  the  following  purposes:  To  fasten  parts  of  machines 
together;  to  transmit  motion;  to  convert  rotation  into  transla- 
tion, or  vice  versa;  for  the  adjustment  of  parts  in  their  relation 
to  one  another. 

The  Helix.  —  A  helix  is  a  curve  generated  by  a  point  moving 
equal  distances  lengthwise  of  a  cylinder  while  it  is  moving  equal 


•5        6         7        8        9        IO        II        13       I 


frg.  60 

distances  around  the  cylinder.  If  a  right  triangle  is  wound 
around  a  cylinder  the  hypotenuse  will  form  a  helix.  The  points 
1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  of  Fig.  80  will  come  at  the  same  numbers  on  the 
curve  when  the  triangle  is  wound  around  the  cylinder.  The 
pitch  of  a  helix  is  the  distance  which  the  point  moves  parallel  to 
the  axis  while  it  goes  once  around  the  cylinder. 

To  draw  the  Projections  of  a  Helix.  —  In  Fig.  80  let  D  be  the 
diameter  and  let  the  pitch  be  the  distance  indicated.  Divide 
the  circle  shown  in  the  top  view  into  any  convenient  number  of 
equal  parts,  and  draw  vertical  lines  through  each  point.  Divide 
the  pitch  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts  and  draw  horizontal 

40 


SCREW  THREADS 


41 


lines.     For  each  space  around  the  cylinder  the  point  will  move 

one  of  the  spaces  along  the  pitch,  thus  locating  the  curve  as  shown. 

Parts  of  a  Screw.  —  A  screw  is  known  by  its  outside  diameter, 


Fig.  81 


indicated  in  Fig.  81  by  d.  The  diameter  d\  is  called  the  root 
diameter.  Point  6  is  the  top  of  the  thread  and  point  a  the  bot- 
tom, or  root.  The  area  corresponding  to  di  is  called  the  root 
area.  One  half  the  difference  between  the  outside  diameter  and 
the  root  diameter  is  called  the  depth  of  the  thread. 

Right-  and  Left-hand  Screws.  —  Screws  may  be  either  right  - 
or  left-hand.    A  right-hand  screw  thread  (Fig.  93)  requires  the 


r 


tera 

h— H— H 
/v^.  82 


screw  to  be  turned  in  a  clockwise  direction  to  enter  the  nut. 
A  left-hand  screw  thread  (Fig.  99)  must  be  turned  counter-clock- 
wise when  entering.  The  pitch  of  a  screw  thread  is  the  distance 
which  the  screw  will  advance  for  one  complete  turn  for  a  single 
threaded  screw. 

Forms  of  Screw  Threads.  —  The  forms  of  screw  threads  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  figures.  Fig.  82  shows  the  Sellers, 
Franklin  Institute,  or  U.  S.  Standard  thread,  as  used  quite  gen- 
erally in  the  United  States.  The  proportions  are  indicated  on 
the  figures.  The  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  V's  are  flattened  so 
that  the  depth  of  the  thread  is  decreased  0.25  the  depth  of  the 


42 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


V.  The  flats  make  the  thread  less  liable  to  injury  on  the  sharp 
V's  and  less  liable  to  weakening  at  the  bottom  of  the  grooves 
than  the  sharper  V  thread  shown  in  Fig.  83.  This  form  of  thread 


f/g.86 


Hg.  89 


is  also  in  quite  general  use.  It  is  conveniently  formed  on  a  lathe, 
and  does  not  require  a  special  tool,  or  regrinding  of  the  tool,  as 
is  the  case  for  the  U.  S.  Standard.  The  angle  for  both  the  above 
forms  is  60  degrees. 

The  Whitworth  thread,  or  standard  of  Great  Britain,  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  84.  In  this  form  the  angle  is  55  degrees.  The  threads 
are  rounded  off  at  the  top  and  bottom,  making  a  strong  shape. 


Fig.  91 

The  forms  described  above  are  the  ones  most  commonly  used 
for  fastening  parts  together. 

Fig.  86  shows  the  square  thread,  a  form  well  adapted  for  use 
in  transmitting  motion. 

The  Acme  thread,  a  modification  of  the  square  thread,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  87.  The  angle  may  be  either  29  or  30  degrees.  This 
form  is  used  for  transmitting  motion.  The  relieving  of  the 
thread  allows  the  use  of  a  split  nut.  A  common  example  is  the 


SCREW  THREADS 


43 


lead  screw  of  a  lathe.  Fig.  88  shows  the  buttress  or  breechlock 
thread  so  called  from  its  use  in  guns  to  take  the  recoil.  It  is 
designed  to  take  pressure  in  one  direction  only.  This  form  has 
the  strength  in  shear  of  the  V  form,  but  avoids  the  tendency  to 


Fig. 


split  the  nut.  Fig.  85  shows  the  knuckle  or  rounded  screw 
thread.  This  form  can  be  cast  in  a  mold.  It  is  used  only  for 
rough  work.  Fig.  89  shows  the  common  wood  screw.  An 
attempt  is  made  to  consider  the  differences  in  strength  of  the 


Fig.  95 


Fig.  96 


wood  and  steel.  For  adjustment,  Figs.  82,  83,  84,  86,  and  87 
are  used.  Thrust  screws  for  pillow  blocks,  crossheads,  etc.,  are 
familiar  examples  of  adjusting  screws. 

Multiple  Threads.  —  Screws  may  have  either  single,  double, 
or  other  multiple  threads.  A  single-threaded  screw  consists  of 
a  single  helical  projection  (Fig.  90).  The  pitch  is  the  distance 
from  one  thread  point  to  the  next  thread  point.  The  lead  is  the 


44 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


distance  which  the  screw  will  advance  for  one  turn.  When  a 
large  pitch  is  required  on  a  small  diameter,  the  arrangement  of 
Fig.  91  would  weaken  the  screw  by  reducing  the  root  diameter 
(Fig.  91)  at  point  A.  To  avoid  this,  two  parallel  helical  projec- 
tions may  be  used,  as  shown  at  B  (Fig.  91).  This  is  called  a  double 


f= 


fig.  9  7 


.  96 


fig.  -99 


f/g.  100 


thread.  Similarly,  a  triple  or  quadruple  thread  may  be  formed. 
In  this  manner  a  large  lead  may  be  obtained  without  lessening 
the  strength  of  the  screw. 

Split  Nut  and  Square  Thread.  —  A  portion  of  a  square  threaded 
screw,  and  a  section  of  a  nut  for^use  with  it  are  shown  in  Fig.  92. 


Fig.  101 


Fig.  102 


F/g.  103 


The  method  of  drawing  the  helix  has  already  been  explained. 
Note  the  dotted  line  a-b,  which  indicates  the  undercutting  of 
surface  abc,  and  shows  why  a  split  nut  cannot  be  removed  from 
a  square  threaded  screw.  The  sloping  side  of  the  Acme  thread 
does  away  with  this  undercutting  and  allows  the  removal  of  a 
split  nut. 

Conventional  Representation  of  Screw  Threads.  —  It  is  not 
often  necessary  to  draw  the  helix  in  representing  threads,  as 
there  are  a  number  of  conventional  representations  in  use.  Figs. 
93  to  100  are  common  methods.  Figs.  93  to  98  are  for  right- 
hand  threads,  Figs.  99  and  100  are  for  left-hand  threads,  and 
Figs.  96  to  98  are  for  either  right-  or  left-hand  threads.  It  is  not 


SCREW  THREADS 


45 


generally  necessary  to  draw  the  pitch  to  scale.  The  distance 
between  lines  may  be  estimated  by  eye  and  arranged  to  avoid 
crowding  of  the  lines.  The  number  of  threads  per  inch  of  other 
than  U.  S.  Standard  should  be  given  by  note,  as  "12  threads  per 


Fig.  104 


inch,  right  hand."     This  may  be  abbreviated  to  "12  Thds.  R.  H." 
or  "  12  Thds.  L.  H."     Sometimes  the  number  is  given  for  U.  S. 
Standard  as  indicated  in  Fig.  96,  or  the  Roman  numeral  may  be 
used,  as  in  Fig.  95. 
Three  representations  for  square  threads  are  shown  in  Figs.  101, 


n  / 

J 

S 

~-JJ 

i[ 

/ 

1 

/ 

Fig.  IO5 


Pig.  106 


102,  and  103.     The  square  threads  are  generally  drawn  to  scale, 
and  if  of  large  diameter  the  helix  may  be  drawn  in,  as  in  Fig.  92. 

Threaded  Holes.  —  Representations  for  threaded  holes  are 
shown  in  plan,  elevation,  and  section,  in  Fig.  104.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  lines  representing  the  threads  slope  in  the 


46  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

opposite  direction  when  the  hole  is  shown  in  section.     The  reason 
for  this  is  that  the  far  side  of  the  thread  is  seen.    As  shown, 
either  single  or  double  circles  may  be  used  in  the  plan  view. 
When  the  last  two  forms  are  used  they  should  always  be  marked 

"Tap"  as  indicated. 
For  small  diameters, 
the  V's  may  be  put 
in  free  hand.  The 
lines  representing  the 

F/g.  107  f/g.  lOa  r/g.  109 

roots  of   the  threads 

when  visible  are  sometimes  made  heavier,  but  when  dotted  all 
lines  should  be  of  uniform  thickness. 

Strength  of  Screw  Threads.  —  There  are  three  methods  of 
failure,  shearing  of  threads,  tension  at  the  root  of  threads,  and 
bursting  of  the  nut. 

Let  fs  =  unit  shearing  stress  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 
ft  =  unit  tensile  stress  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 
p  =  pitch  in  inches 
I  =  length  in  inches 

The  shearing  strength  of  the  V  thread  (Fig.  105)  will  be 
Ps  =  TT  d,  If. 

and  for  square  threads  (Fig.  106)  having  the  same  outside  diameter 

and  pitch  „  ,   , ,   , 

P8  =  ird2  l/z  f, 

which  shows  that  the  square  thread  is  much  weaker  in  shear 
than  the  V  thread. 

The  tensile  strength  of  the  V  thread  (Fig.  105)  will  be 

Pt  -V4irdi»/« 

and  for  the  square  thread,  Fig.   106,  having  the  same  outside 
diameter  and  pitch  p    _  i  /       j  2  / 

•*£    ==     /4  TT  C*2    jt 

The  V  thread  will  have  a  considerable  tendency  to  burst  the 
nut,  as  shown  in  Fig.  107.  As  the  angle  between  the  threads 
decreases,  this  bursting  tendency  decreases  until  the  square  form 
is  reached,  when  it  becomes  zero  (Fig.  109). 

The  following  tables  give  some  desirable  data  concerning  screw 
threads.  Further  information  may  be  found  in  the  handbooks 
published  by  Machinery  and  American  Machinist. 


SCREW  THREADS 


47 


DIMENSIONS  OF  U.  S.  STANDARD  THREADS 


Diameter 

Threads 
per  Inch 

Diameter 
of  Tap  Drill 

Root 
Diameter 

Root 
Area 

V4 

20 

Vl6 

.185 

.026 

Vl6 

18 

V4 

.241 

.045 

3/8 

16 

Vl6 

.294 

.068 

Vl6 

14 

23/64 

.345 

.093 

Vi 

13 

13/32 

.400 

.126 

Vli 

12 

15/32 

.454 

.162 

'          V8 

11 

17/32 

.507 

.202 

3/4 

10 

6/8 

.620 

.302 

'/• 

9 

3/4 

.731 

.420 

1 

8 

27/32 

.838 

.551 

Wi 

7 

31/32 

.940 

.693 

IV  4 

7 

W32 

1.065 

.889 

!3/3 

6 

IV  16 

1.159 

1.054 

1V« 

6 

!'/» 

1.284 

1.293 

IV.' 

5V. 

!13/32 

1.389 

1.515 

W  4 

5 

iVi 

1.491 

1.744 

!7/8 

5 

!5/8 

1.616 

2.049 

2 

41/  2 

1V4 

1.711 

2.300 

TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  U.  S.  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS 


Diameter 

Threads 
per  Inch 

Total  Strength  of  One  Bolt  for  Unit  Stresses  of 

4000 

5000 

6000 

l/4 

20 

105 

135 

160 

3/8 

16 

270 

340 

405 

Vi 

13 

500 

625 

750 

5/8 

11 

805 

1010 

1210 

3/4 

10 

1200 

1500 

1800 

7/8 

9 

1680 

2100 

2520 

1V8 

8 

2200 

2750 

3300 

iVt 

7 

2770 

3460 

4160 

Wi 

7 

3120 

3900 

4680 

!3/8 

6 

4240 

5300 

6360 

iVi 

6 

5120 

6400 

7680 

!5/8 

51/  2 

6120 

7650 

9180 

IV  4 

5 

7040 

8800 

10560 

r/8 

5 

8120 

10150 

12180 

2 

41/  2 

9200 

11500 

13800 

CHAPTER  VII 
BOLTS   AND    SCREWS 

THE  most  common  fastening  for  holding  parts  of  machines 
together  is  some  form  of  bolt  or  screw.  There  is  a  great  variety 
of  forms,  many  of  which  are  shown  in  this  chapter. 

U.  S.  Standard  Bolts.  —  Figs.  110  and  111  show  the  pro- 
portions of  the  U.  S.  Standard  hexagonal  bolt  head  and  nut. 
As  indicated,  there  are  two  general  forms,  chamf erred  (Fig.  110) 
and  rounded  (Fig.  111).  The  same  proportions  hold  for  both 
types.  The  rounded  type  is  used  when  the  parts  to  be  bolted 
together  are  nicely  finished.  The  distance  across  flats  W  is 
made  equal  to  one  and  one  half  times  the  diameter,  plus  one 
eighth  inch,  or 

w  »iy.  ***/•" 

The  thickness  of  the  bolt  head  is  made  equal  to  one  half  the 
distance  across  flats,  or 

T  =  3/4d+Vi6" 

The  thickness  of  the  nut  is  made  equal  to  the  diameter  in  all 
cases.  These  same  formulae  hold  good  for  both  the  hexagonal 
and  square  forms.  Fig.  112  shows  the  square  form. 

The  radii  for  the  various  arcs  are  shown  on  the  figures,  and 
when  not  given  in  terms  of  the  diameter  are  obtained  from  the 
construction,  as  indicated.  The  distance  across  corners  is  gen- 
erally found  by  construction,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  110,  by  drawing 
a  line  xy  at  30  degrees  with  the  base  of  the  head. 

x-z  =  one  hah"  distance  across  flats 
x-y  '=  one  half  distance  across  corners 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  radii  R  and  Ri  of  Fig.  Ill,  are  both 
drawn  from  the  same  center.  The  length  of  the  radius  Ri  is 
found  by  construction  when  drawing  the  bolt  head  or  nut.  When 

48 


BOLTS  AND  SCREWS 


49 


^r 


fcsr^r 


fiii 


Fig.  /IS 


heads  or  nuts  are  finished  or  machined,  the  distance  across  flats 
is  often  made  Vie  inch  smaller  than  standard,  in  which  case 

W  -I'd+ 


50 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


The  proportions  of  bolt  heads  and  nuts  are  collected  in  the 
following  list,  which  also  gives  some  approximate  values  to  be 
used  when  drawing  to  small  scale,  or  where  exact  size  is  not 
important. 


Exact 

Approximate 

Diameter  of  bolt  

d 

d 

d 

d 

Distance  across  flats  

W 

3/2<2    +1/&" 

!3/4d 

w 

Thickness  of  bolt  head  

T 

7/s  d 

ft          /i6   -  2 

(Hex.)  distance  across  corners.  . 

(7H 

1.155TF 

P/4  d  +  1/8 

2d 

Thickness  of  nut  

d 

d 

d 

d 

(Square)  distance  across  corners 

Cs 

1.414TF 

2.3d 

Bolts.  —  A  through  bolt  is  one  which  extends  through  two 
pieces,  and  carries  a  nut,  as  shown  in  Fig.  113.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  allow  sufficient  thread  to  insure  the  two  pieces  being  held 
firmly  together.  For  this  reason,  the  distance  from  the  end  of 


fig.  //-? 


Fig.  114 


r/g.H5 


the  thread  at  A  to  the  under  side  of  the  head  B  must  be  less 
than  the  thickness  of  the  two  flanges.  Since  the  bolt  head  and 
nut  are  standard  only  three  dimensions  are  necessary  when 
specifying  a  bolt.  These  are,  diameter,  length  from  under  side 
of  head  to  end  of  bolt,  and  length  of  thread  measured  from  the 
end  of  the  bolt. 

A  tap  bolt  is  a  bolt  which  makes  use  of  a  part  of  the  machine 
to  take  the  place  of  a  nut,  as  shown  in  Fig.  114.  To  be  sure  that 
the  two  pieces  will  be  held  firmly  together,  the  distance  AB  must 
be  less  than  the  thickness  of  the  flange. 


BOLTS  AND 


Studs.  • —  A  stud  bolt  or  stud  is  a  cylindrical  bar  having  threads 
on  both  ends  (Fig.  115).  Studs  are  used  when  there  is  not  room 
enough  for  through  bolts,  and  where  there  is  danger  of  a  tap 
bolt  rusting  in.  Cylinder  heads  for  steam  or  water  machinery 
are  familiar  examples.  In  such  cases  the  heads  have  to  be  taken 
off  frequently,  and  if  tap  bolts  were 
used,  the  threads  might  rust  in,  and 
break  when  an  attempt  to  remove 
them  was  made.  If  successfully  re- 
moved several  times,  the  thread  would 
be  worn  so  as  to  become  loose  and 
render  the  keeping  of  a  tight  joint 
difficult.  When  a  stud  is  put  in  place 
it  becomes  part  of  the  casting,  and 
the  wear  then  comes  on  the  nut  and 
stud,  both  of  which  are  made  of 
wrought  iron.  The  material  will  stand 
the  wear  much  better  than  cast  iron.  A  small  amount  of  oil 
on  the  outer  end  of  the  stud  will  prevent  the  nut  from,  rusting 
on. 

Threaded  Holes.  —  Holes   for  bolts  and  studs  are  generally 
threaded  by  using  taps.     Machinist  taps  come  in  sets  of  three, 


Fig  //7 


designated  as  taper,  plug,  and  bottoming  taps  (Fig.  116).  The 
operation  is  as  follows:  First  a  hole  is  made  with  a  drill  having 
a  diameter  about  equal  to  the  root  diameter  of  the  screw.  Such 
a  drill  is  called  a  tap  drill.  The  thread  is  then  cut  by  inserting 
and  turning  in  the  taps  illustrated,  and  in  the  order  given.  The 
use  of  the  bottoming  tap  is  often  omitted,  as  it  is  seldom  neces- 
sary to  have  threads  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  hole  (the  reader 
is  referred  to  catalogs  of  machinists'  tools  for  further  informa- 


52 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


tion).  Unless  it  is  desired  to  have  a  stud  jam  at  the  bottom  of 
a  hole,  clearance,  CD,  should  be  allowed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  117. 
The  depth  of  the  hole  is  the  distance  A  B.  If  necessary  the 


Plat   Fillisf-er  Head 


Oral  Pi/lister  Head 


=I.64/I-.OO9 

I  O    ,"     C--  .66A-.002 
I      _Jj_i     O-  .173 A+. 015 


2/1 -.003 

-  008)  +  /.  739 
J73A  +.0/5 


Fig. 


thread  may  be  carried  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole  and  even  the 
drill  point  may  be  ground  off  so  that  a  flat  bottom  hole  may  be 
obtained  as  in  Fig.  118.  This  will  prevent  the  drill  from  pointing 
or  breaking  through,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines.  A  better 


D 

/ 

4- 

ft 

3 

e 

7 
/6 

2 

9 

16 

i 

3 

4 

2 
e 

1 

H 

7 

/6 

/ 

a 

^ 

16 

ff~ 

4- 

7e 

G 

1 

/£ 

1* 

s5 

3 
0 

^ 

/6 

£ 

& 

§ 

ii 

~6 

* 
•<? 

7 

e 

/s 

1* 

method  is  to  put  a  boss  on  the  casting  opposite  the  hole,  and 
then  use  a  regular  drill  and  plug  tap  (Fig.  119). 

Machine  Screws.  —  Small  screws  are  made  with  a  variety  of 
forms  of  heads.  They  are  especially  adapted  for  use  with  small 
parts  of  machines.  Fig.  120  shows  the  various  forms  of  heads, 
and  the  proportions  as  recommended  by  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers.  The  sizes  of  machine  screws  are 


BOLTS  AND  SCREWS 


53 


designated  by  numbers.     Diameters  range  from   .060  inches  to 
.450  inches. 

Cap  Screws.  —  For  many  purposes  bolts  having  different 
dimensions  from  the  U.  S.  Standard  are  desirable.  Hexagonal 
and  square  cap  screws  are  shown  in  Figs.  121  and  122.  The 
distance  across  flats  is  less  than  the  U.  S.  Standard,  and  the 
thickness  is  greater.  Cap  screws  are  also  made  with  heads  similar 
to  those  shown  for  machine  screws.  Cap  screws  are  designated 
by  their  diameter  in  inches.  The  diameters  are  in  even  fractions 
of  an  inch,  starting  at  l/i". 

Cap  Nuts.  — -  Where  an  especially  finished  appearance  is  de- 
sired, cap  nuts  may 
be  used  to  conceal 
the  ends  of  studs. 
They  are  frequently 
seen  on  polished  cyl- 
inder heads,  and  similar  places.  Several  forms  of  cap  nuts  are 
shown  in  Figs.  123,  124,  and  125. 

Set  Screws.  —  For  holding  pulleys  on  shafts,  and  otherwise 
preventing  relative  motion,  set  screws  may  be  used.  Several 
forms  are  illustrated.  Any  combination  of  point  and  head  may 


/V=  l/.S.SM.  M>   Thds.  per  inch. 


Fig.  I. 


Fig.  /26 


fig.  J2d 


Fig.  131 


be  obtained.  Some  proportions  are  shown  in  Figs.  126  to  131. 
A  projecting  set  screw  on  a  revolving  pulley  is  a  source  of  great 
danger,  and  should  be  avoided.  The  many  forms  of  headless 
and  hollow  set  screws  on  the  market  render  the  use  of  other 
forms  unnecessary  in  such  cases. 

The  relative  holding  power  of  the  different  forms  of  ends  of 
set  screw  are  given  by  Professor  Lanza  in  the  A.  S.  M.  E.  "  Trans- 
actions," Volume  10.  Average  results  of  tests  on  four  kinds  are 
as  follows: 


54  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

A.  Flat  end,  9/ie  inch  diameter,  2064  pounds 

B.  End  rounded,  l/z  inch  radius,  2912  pounds 

C.  End  rounded,  */4  inch  radius,  2573  pounds 

D.  Cup  shaped  end,  2470  pounds 

The  set  screws  were  all  5/8  inches  in  diameter,  and  were  tightened 
with  a  pull  of  75  pounds  on  a  12  inch  wrench. 

Locking  Devices.  —  The  vibration  of  machinery  often  causes 
nuts  to  become  loose  if  they  are  not  provided  with  some  form  of 
locking  device.  The  commonest  method  is  to  use  two  nuts. 
They  may  be  full  size,  or  one  of  the  arrangements  shown  in  Fig. 


rig.  132 

132.  The  castle  nut  illustrated  forms  a  good  method.  Lock 
washers  consisting  of  a  piece  of  sheet  metal  are  effective.  One 
corner  is  turned  down,  and  another  corner  is  turned  up,  as 
illustrated. 

The  following  table  gives  the  dimensions  for  U.  S.  Standard 
bolt  heads  and  nuts. 


BOLTS  AND  SCREWS 


55 


DIMENSIONS  OF  U.  S.  STANDABD  BOLT  HEADS  AND  NUTS 


d 

Diameter 
of  Bolt 

W 

Flats  or 
Short 
Diameter 

c 

Corners 
or  Long 
Diameter 

d 

Thickness 
of  Nut 

r 

Thickness 
of 
Bolt  Head 

CS 

Corners 
or  Long 
Diameter 

V4 

»/• 

37/64 

V* 

'/« 

Z3/32 

Vl6 

13/32 

U/16 

Vl6 

19/64 

27/32 

3/8 

»/16 

81/64 

V« 

tt/M 

31/32 

Vl6 

•/M 

29/32 

7/16 

25/64 

!7/64 

'/I 

7/8 

1V64 

*/• 

Vl6 

1V4 

Vie 

31/32 

1V« 

Vl6 

31/64 

W  8 

Vs 

iVu 

l1S/64 

5/8 

17/32 

1V2 

3/4 

1V4 

!29/64 

3/4 

B/8 

1V4 

7/8 

F/16 

l«/64 

7/8 

23/32 

»/M 

1 

lB/8 

l?/8 

13/16 

2V« 

IVs 

113/16 

2P/M 

Vs 

29/32 

29/  16 

1V4 

2 

2V  i. 

V4 

1 

2S3/64 

!3/8 

2Vie 

2"/32 

3/8 

i«/.i 

33/32 

iVi 

2»/8 

2V4 

v« 

IV  16 

323/64 

!5/8 

2'/16 

215/16 

!5/8 

P/32 

3*/8 

!3/4 

2V4 

3V  16 

W4 

!3/8 

357/64 

l?/8 

216/16 

313/32 

l?/8 

!15/32 

43/  16 

2 

3Vs 

35/8 

2 

P/16 

4^/64 

56 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


DEPTH  OP  TAPPED  HOLES  AND  DISTANCE  FOR  SCREW  TO  ENTER 


d 

Diameter 
of  Screw 

D 

Diameter 
of  Tap 
Drill 

B 

Depth 
of  Hole 

C 

Allowance 
for 
Drill  Point 

A 

Distance 
for  Screw 
to  Enter 

v« 

•»/.» 

Vl6 

Vl6 

3/8 

Vl6 

17/32 

Vl6 

8/64 

Vl6 

3/8 

Vl6 

n/M 

3/32 

Vl6 

Vl6 

3/8 

3/4 

7/64 

5/8 

Vi 

"/64 

13/16 

Vs 

"/16 

Vi« 

31/64 

15/16 

9/64 

13/16 

V« 

17/32 

1 

5/32 

7/8 

3/4 

«/64 

W4 

Vl6 

1 

Vs 

3/4 

iVi 

7/32 

1V4 

1 

55/64 

1V8 

V4 

!3/8 

iVt 

61/64 

IV  4 

9/32 

1V2 

1V« 

1V64 

2 

8/H 

1V4 

!»/• 

ln/64 

2V4 

U/32 

1V8 

i»/i 

!19/64 

2'/2 

3/8 

2V« 

!•/• 

l"/32 

2B/8 

13/32 

2>/4 

l'/4 

IV« 

23/  4 

Vl6 

2V. 

iVi 

!5/8 

3 

15/32 

2V« 

2 

P3/32 

3'/8 

7i 

2V  4 

CHAPTER  VIII 
RIVETING 

Riveting.  —  Since  machines  and  structures  cannot  be  made  in 
one  piece  some  means  of  fastening  the  parts  together  must  be 
used.  For  many  purposes  where  a  permanent  fastening  is  re- 
quired, rivets  are  used.  A  rivet  is  a  bar  of  metal  having  a  head 
made  on  one  end  and  a  length  sufficient  to  allow  forming  a  head 
on  the  other  end  after  being  put  into  place.  The  holes  for  rivets 
may  be  either  punched  or  drilled.  As  punching  injures  the 
metal,  drilled  holes  are  better  for  boiler  or  other  pressure  work. 


f>g.  /33 


Holes  are  made  Vie  inch  larger  diameter  than  the  rivets  used  in 
them.  Thus  a  one-inch  rivet  is  15/ie  inch  diameter  before  driving. 

The  computations  for  pitch  and  efficiency  of  joints,  matters 
relating  to  design,  are  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work,  but  the 
following  articles  will  suffice  for  drawing  purposes. 

Rivet  Heads.  —  The  forms  of  rivet  heads  are  shown  in  Figs. 
133,  134,  and  135.  The  countersunk  head  and  the  button  head 
are  illustrated  in  Fig.  133.  These  forms  are  used  for  structural 
work.  For  pressure  work  the  cone  head  or  pan  head  of  Fig.  134 
may  be  used,  or  the  common  form  of  Fig.  135. 

Lap  Joints.  —  When  two  plates  lap  over  each  other  and  are 
held  by  a  row  of  rivets  as  in  Fig.  136  it  is  called  a  single  riveted 
lap  joint.  A  double  riveted  lap  joint  is  shown  in  Fig.  137.  The 
distance  between  the  centers  of  two  rivets  in  the  same  row  is 

57 


58 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


called  the  pitch.  The  distance  from  the  center  line  of  the  rivets 
to  the  edge  of  the  plate  is  called  the  lap.  The  lap  is  commonly 
made  equal  to  one  and  one  half  times  the  diameter  of  the  rivet. 


/3  7 


The  distance  from  the  center  of  a  rivet  in  one  line  to  the  center 
of  a  rivet  in  the  next  line  is  called  the  diagonal  pitch  and  may  be 
found  from  the  formula: 

P'  = 


Either  chain  riveting  (Fig.  138)  or  staggered  riveting  (Fig.  139) 
may  be  used  when  there  are  several  rows  of  rivets. 


fig.  138 


.  /39 


Butt  Joints.  —  Three  forms  of  butt  joints  are  shown  in  Figs. 
140,  141,  and  142.  In  Fig.  140  a  single  butt-strap  having  a  thick- 
ness of  about  one  and  one  fourth  times  the  thickness  of  the  plates 


RIVETING 


59 


may  be  used.     Figs.  141  and  142  show  single  and  double  riveted 
butt  joints  with  two  butt-straps.     In  such  cases  the  butt-straps 
may  be  Vie  inch  thinner  than  the  plates. 
When  three  plates  come  together  they  must  be  arranged  so 


Section  A-A 


r/g. 


as  to  maintain  a  tight  joint.  One  method  used  is  shown  in 
Fig.  143.  In  order  to  obtain  a  fit  one  of  the  plates  must  be 
thinned  out. 

Calking.  —  For  many  purposes  rivets  must  make  a  leak  tight 
joint  as  well  as  hold  the  plates  together.     To  assist  in  this  a 


60 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


blunt  chisel  is  used  to  force  or  pound  the  edge  of  the  plate  down. 
This  is  called  calking  and  makes  a  water  or  steam  tight  joint 

113k. 


between  the  plates.     The  bevel  of  about  75°  shown  is  to  make 
the  calking  easier. 

Miscellaneous  Connections.  —  Some  miscellaneous  connections 
are  shown  in  Figs.  144  to  147.    Angles  may  be  used  as  in  Figs. 


144  and  147  or  one  of  the  plates  may  be  bent  as  in  Figs.  145  and 
146.  In  this  case  the  radius  of  curvature  (r)  may  be  about  two 
and  one  half  times  the  thickness  of  the  plate.  Also  note  that  a 
short  straight  part  (x)  should  be  provided  to  allow  easy  calking 

FCIIT 


Angle  (l_)        Channel^ }  Beam  (I )  Z-Bar  (Z ) 

Pig.  150 


Tee  (T) 


(Fig.  145) .  When  drawing  to  a  small  scale  thin  sections  are  some- 
times blacked  in  as  shown  in  Figs.  148  and  149,  which  also  il- 
lustrate methods  of  closing  the  ends  of  cylindrical  tanks.  With 
rounded  ends  the  radius  of  curvature  may  be  taken  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  tank. 


RIVETING 


61 


Rolled  Steel  Shapes.  —  For  many  constructions,  rolled  steel 
shapes  are  used.  The  dimensions  and  weights  as  well  as  other 
properties  can  best  be  obtained  from  the  handbooks  issued  by 


CONVENTIONAL    S/GNS  fV/f  Rir£T/N6 


Shop 

Fie/d 

Ccn/stferyt/rr/r  and  f-~/affened 

Titv  Full  Heads 

o 

• 

Inside 

Outside 

BotoSides 

§  High 

Q 

Q 

Q 

Countersunk  &  Chipped 
/ns/de  or  Opposite  side 

8) 

® 

Countersunk  S  Ch/ppect 
Outeic/e  or  This  Side 

a 

® 

ij'High 

0 

0 

§J 

Coufersunk  3  Chipped 
Both  Sides 

£3 

m 

s'High 

® 

Q 

^ 

Fig.  I5/ 

the  steel  companies.     The  names  of  a  few  of  the  common  sections 
are  given  in  connection  with  Fig.  150. 

The  pitch  of  rivets  for  structural  purposes  may  be  taken  at 
from  three  to  six  inches.  The  distance  from  the  center  of  the 
rivet  to  the  edge  of  the  plate  should  generally  be  about  two  times 
the  rivet  diameter.  The  pitch  for  various  sizes  of  rivets  may  be 
taken  from  the  table  given  below. 

MINIMUM    RIVET  SPACING 


Diameter  of  Ri 


Pitch 


is 


i^A 


The  Osborn  system  of  conventional  representation  for  rivets 
is  shown  in  Fig.  151. 


CHAPTER  IX 
WORKING  DRAWINGS 

Cksses  of  Drawings.  —  The  origin  of  a  drawing  is  of  interest, 
and  a  knowledge  of  how  drawings  are  produced  is  essential. 
Roughly  drawings  may  be  divided  into  two  classes;  detail  draw- 
ings and  assembly  drawings.  These  names  are  sufficiently  de- 
scriptive in  a  general  way.  Drawings  are  sometimes  made  from 
a  machine  or  part  by  measuring  and  sketching.  The  usual 
source  of  a  detail  drawing  is  the  designer's  board.  Here  the 
whole  machine  is  laid  out  to  scale  in  a  more  or  less  complete 
manner,  the  relation  of  one  part  to  another  is  shown,  and  such 
fixed  dimensions  as  are  necessary  are  determined.  The  shapes 
of  the  various  parts  as  required  for  strength  and  motion  are 
worked  out  and  drawn.  From  such  drawings  the  detail  drafts- 
man works  and  finishes  the  drawings  of  the  separate  parts. 

A  detail  drawing  shows  each  piece  separately  and  completely 
defines  it  (Fig.  152).  The  number  of  views  is  determined  by 
what  is  necessary  to  show  the  shape  and  size  of  the  object.  A 
pin,  shaft,  or  bolt  can  generally  be  shown  in  one  view,  while  a 
casting  may  require  two,  three,  or  more  views  together  with 
sectional  and  auxiliary  views.  The  main  views  should  always 
be  arranged  in  strict  conformity  to  the  rules  of  projection.  The 
third  quadrant  is  used  exclusively  for  this  purpose.  Auxiliary 
views  and  sections  may  be  placed  in  other  positions  but  explana- 
tory notes  should  always  be  used  to  define  them  as  explained  in 
Chapter  X. 

The  size  of  paper  and  the  scales  to  use  have  been  treated  in 
other  chapters.  Use  a  scale  that  will  show  the  object  clearly 
and  that  will  not  require  crowding  of  the  dimensions.  In  general 
it  is  better  not  to  use  more  than  one  scale  on  the  same  sheet. 
To  this  end  large  and  small  pieces  would  not  be  put  on  the  same 
sheet.  There  are  many  concerns  where  each  part  is  drawn  on 
a  sheet  by  itself.  The  character  of  the  work  will  determine  the 
practice  in  this  respect. 

62 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


63 


It  is  generally  well  to  draw  large  castings  separately  and  to 
group  small  parts  together  as: 

Small  Castings, 

Bronze  and  Composition  Castings, 

Forgings, 

Bolts  and  Screws. 


Fig.  152 

Special  Detail  Drawings.  —  Special  detail  drawings  are  some- 
times made  for  the  different  classes  of  workmen.  These  might 
be  classed  as  follows: 

Pattern  Drawings, 

Forging  Drawings, 

Machinist's  Drawings, 

Stock  Drawings. 

There  are  many  advantages  to  this  system  where  a  large  num- 
ber of  parts  are  made  as  each  workman  is  given  only  such  in- 
formation as  concerns  him.  As  pattern  dimensions  are  used 
only  when  the  pattern  is  made  or  for  alterations  they  complicate 
the  drawing  and  can  better  be  left  off  the  machinist's  drawing. 
One  method  is  to  put  the  pattern  dimensions  and  information  on 
the  tracing  in  pencil,  make  several  blueprints,  and  erase  the  pencil 


64 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


f- 

i 


information  from  the  tracing.  Gasolene  applied  with  a  soft 
cloth  is  excellent  for  this  purpose.  For  forgings  two  separate 
drawings  will  be  necessary,  one  for  the  blacksmith  and  one  for 
the  machinist.  The  saving  in  time  will  make  up  for  the  expense 
of  the  extra  drawing  in  most  cases. 


WORKING  DRAWINGS  65 

How  to  make  a  Drawing.  —  A  detail  drawing  is  started  by 
first  locating  the  main  center  lines  as  shown  in  Fig.  153  for  the 
necessary  views.  Next  " block  in"  the  fixed  dimensions  in  all 
views  and  from  them  work  out  the  shape  of  the  object.  The 
small  circles,  fillets,  etc.  should  be  drawn  last.  Figs.  153  to  158 
show  the  drawing  for  a  slide  valve  in  the  various  stages  of  making. 

After  completing  the  drawing  in  pencil  it  is  ready  to  be  inked 
on  paper  or  traced. 

Tracing.  —  Most  drawings  are  now  inked  on  tracing  cloth. 
This  is  a  translucent  linen  cloth.  There  are  many  grades,  some 
nearly  transparent.  One  side  of  the  cloth  is  generally  shiny  or 
glazed  and  the  other  dull.  Either  side  may  be  used  but  the  dull 
side  is  to  be  preferred.  The  cloth  is  tacked  down  over  the  pencil 
drawing  and  the  lines  inked  in  as  though  they  were  on  the  cloth. 
The  surface  of  the  cloth  should  be  rubbed  over  with  powdered 
chalk  and  then  the  chalk  thoroughly  removed.  A  clean  blotter 
will  serve  the  same  purpose.  The  fine  thread  running  at  the 
edges  of  the  cloth  should  be  torn  off  before  using  to  prevent 
wrinkling.  As  the  cloth  is  absorbent  it  should  be  protected  from 
moisture. 

Order  for  inking  Lines.  —  The  weight  of  line  to  be  used  has 
been  discussed  in  the  first  chapter.  First  ink  the  center  lines 
using  a  fine  dot  and  dash  line.  The  order  of  inking  then  is: 

1.  Small  circular  arcs  and  circles. 

2.  Large  circular  arcs  and  circles. 

3.  Irregular  curved  lines. 

4.  Straight  horizontal  lines. 

5.  Straight  vertical  lines. 

6.  Dotted  circular  arcs. 

7.  Dotted  lines. 

8.  Witness  and  dimension  lines. 

9.  Dimensions,  notes,  title. 
10.  Section  lining. 

When  a  large  or  complicated  drawing  is  to  be  inked  it  is  ad- 
visable to  ink  one  view  at  a  time  or  to  start  only  so  much  as  can 
be  completed  on  the  same  day.  If  a  view  is  left  uncompleted  it 
will  generally  be  found  very  difficult  to  join  the  various  lines, 
because  the  cloth  is  very  sensitive  to  atmospheric  changes  which 
cause  it  to  stretch. 


66  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

Assembly  Drawings.  —  An  assembly  drawing  shows  the  parts 
of  a  machine  in  their  proper  relation  to  one  another.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  assembly  drawings,  some  of  which  will  be  described. 

An  Outline  or  Setting  drawing  is  frequently  made  to  show  the 
appearance  of  the  machine,  give  center  distances,  and  overall 
dimensions.  Such  drawings  are  used  to  illustrate  the  machine 
to  prospective  customers,  to  lay  out  the  foundation,  and  for  locat- 


rig.  159 


ing  the  machine  in  its  building.  Fig.  159  shows  one  form  of  such 
a  drawing. 

An  Assembly  Working  Drawing  is  often  made  when  only  a  few 
of  the  machines  are  to  be  constructed.  Such  a  drawing  might 
contain  a  number  of  part  views  or  sections.  It  would  be  com- 
pletely dimensioned  so  that  no  separate  or  detail  drawings  would 
be  required.  Fig.  175  shows  such  a  drawing. 

Part  Assembly  Drawings  are  sometimes  made  giving  a  few 
pieces  in  their  proper  relation  to  each  other  and  either  partly 
or  completely  dimensioned.  When  completely  dimensioned  no 
further  detail  drawings  are  made. 

Assembly  drawings  made  to  show  the  sizes,  location,  and  method 
of  fastening  pipes  and  wires  are  called  piping  or  wiring  diagrams 
or  drawings,  depending  upon  how  completely  they  are  figured. 

Erection  Drawings  are  an  important  class  of  assembly  drawings. 
They  show  the  proper  order  of  putting  the  parts  together,  dimen- 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


67 


Pig.  /GO 

sions,  such  as  center  distances,  which  must  be  exact,  give  the 
location  of  oil  holes,  valves,  switches,  etc.,  and  methods  of  making 
adjustments. 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Diagram  Drawings  are  used  by  many  concerns.  These  com- 
prise a  sectional  or  external  view  of  the  whole  of  the  machine 
upon  which  the  parts  can  be  numbered  or  named.  Such  a  draw- 
ing frequently  contains  a  list  of  the  parts,  drawing  numbers, 
pattern  numbers,  materials,  weight,  and  other  information. 

Outline  drawings  are  often  used  for  catalogs,  advertising,  and 
similar  purposes.  Some  of  the  points  to  be  considered  are  given 


Fig.  /6I 


Fig.  162 


rig.  163 


in  the  following  list.     The  one  upon  which  emphasis  must  be  put 
will  depend  upon  the  use  to  which  the  drawing  is  to  be  put. 

1.  Get  the  important  points. 

2.  Sense  of  proportion. 

3.  Suggestion. 

4.  Simplicity  (few  lines). 

5.  Record  peculiarities  in  shape  or  design. 

6.  Use  notes  if  necessary. 

7.  Number  of  machine. 

8.  Name  of  manufacturer. 

9.  Trade  names. 

10.  Use  of  shading. 

11.  Not  necessarily  to  scale. 

Show  Drawings  are  sometimes  made.  These  are  often  in  the 
nature  of  a  picture  in  which  the  center  lines  and  dimensions  are 
left  off  (Fig.  160) .  Line  shading  as  explained  in  a  later  chapter  is 
often  used.  A  good  effect  may  sometimes  be  obtained  by  mass 
shading  with  a  soft  pencil,  using  the  dull  side  of  the  tracing  cloth. 
For  more  particular  work  on  paper,  india  ink  tinting  applied  with 
a  brush  can  be  used. 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 


69 


Exceptions  to  True  Projection.  —  There  are  many  cases  where 
true  projection  is  departed  from  in  the  interests  of  simplicity  and 
clearness.  Figs.  161,  162,  and  163  show  a  few  cases.  The  slot 
in  the  screw  is  drawn  at  45°  in  the  top  view  but  is  not  projected 


\        \ 

oil)                           I'- 

1  SJi    iji 

i!i  !;:  II!  ! 

i 

ll  1:  i 

mi 

Fig.  164 

Fig.  165                            Fig.  166 

to  the  elevation.  The  same  practice  is  followed  for  holes  and 
pins.  The  location  of  bolt  holes  is  another  illustration.  The 
front  view  of  Fig.  164  shows  the  true  projection  of  the  bolt  holes. 
The  front  view  of  Fig.  165  shows  the  preferable  method  which 


Fig  167 


locates  the  centers  of  the  bolt  holes  at  a  distance  apart  equal  to 
the  diameter  of  the  circle  of  drilling.  In  such  cases  the  other 
holes  need  not  be  projected  as  they  add  nothing  to  the  information 
conveyed  by  the  drawing.  When  holes  are  drilled  as  in  Fig.  165 
they  are  said  to  be  "Two  Up"  or  off  centers,  and  when  located 
as  in  Fig.  166  they  are  said  to  be  "One  Up"  or  on  centers.  Pipe 
flanges  on  elbows  and  fittings  are  usually  drilled  "Two  Up"  and 


70  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

with  four,  eight,  or  some  multiple  of  four  holes,  so  that  the  flanges 
can  be  turned  at  right  angles. 

Other  exceptions  to  true  projection  are  discussed  in  the  chapter 
on  sections. 

Blueprints.  —  The  object  of  making  tracings  is  to  provide  a 
convenient  means  for  obtaining  several  copies  of  the  original 
drawing.  The  most  common  method  is  by  the  blueprinting 
process.  Blueprint  paper  is  paper  which  has  been  coated  with 
iron  salts  which  are  sensitive  to  light.  The  method  of  making 
blueprints  is  as  follows: 

Place  the  tracing  with  the  right  side  or  inked  side  next  to  the 
glass  of  a  printing  frame  as  shown  in  Fig.  167.  Next  place  a 
piece  of  blueprint  paper  on  the  tracing  with  the  coated  side  down. 
Follow  this  with  the  .felt  pad  and  close  the  frame.  Expose  to 
the  direct  sunlight  as  indicated  in  Fig.  168.  The  length  of  the 
exposure  varies  from  30  seconds  in  strong  sunlight  with  rapid 
printing  paper  to  three  or  four  minutes  under  the  same  conditions 
with  slow  printing  paper.  The  time  can  best  be  found  by  trial, 
as  the  age  of  the  paper  and  the  brightness  of  the  light  all  exert 
an  influence.  After  exposing,  the  paper  should  be  removed  and 
thoroughly  washed.  The  excess  water  may  be  blotted  off  and 
the  print  hung  up  to  dry.  New  paper  has  a  yellow  color  on  the 
coated  side.  After  exposure  this  changes  to  a  gray-bronze  except 
where  the  lines  of  the  tracing  prevent  the  light  from  reaching  it. 

Electric  light  is  very  generally  used  in  the  larger  mechanical 
factories  for  making  blueprints.  Machines  for  this  purpose  as 
well  as  many  other  methods  of  duplication  are  described  in  draw- 
ing supply  catalogs  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 


CHAPTER  X 
SECTIONS 

Sectional  Views.  —  Probably  the  most  useful  form   of  con- 
ventional representation  is  the  sectional  view  obtained  by  an 


rig.  169 


imaginary  cutting  plane  described  in  Chapter  IV.  Free  use 
of  sections  often  saves  much  time  as  well  as  possibility  of  mistakes 
in  reading  drawings  for  constructions  which  have  complicated 


Fig.  /  71 


Fig.  17  2 


cores.  The  choice  of  views  should  be  made  with  care  and  for  a 
definite  purpose,  never  for  appearances.  There  are  many  special 
sections,  some  of  which  are  described  in  this  chapter.  An  article 

71 


72 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


by  the  author,  "Sections  of  Ribs  and  Symmetrical  Parts,"  in 
"  Machinery/'  June,  1915,  gives  further  applications. 

Broken  and  Revolved  Sections.  —  When  a  long  piece  of  uni- 
form cross  section  is  to  be  represented,  a  larger  scale  can  be  used 


Fig.  173 

by  "breaking"  the  piece.  The  manner  of  breaking  generally 
indicates  the  form  of  cross  section  and  material  as  in  Fig.  169. 
The  break  is  made  free  hand  but  should  be  carefully  done.  The 
two  sides  should  appear  to  match,  that  is,  if  the  sectioning  comes 
on  the  upper  side  of  one  half  it  should  come  on  the  lower  side  of 

'A 

r- 

Sect i en  A  A'  ,',-> 
d/rcct/on  of  arrow 


mm\\ 


Fig.  174 

the  other.  A  similar  method  of  "set  in"  sections  is  often  used 
for  such  conditions  as  are  present  with  wrench  handles,  pulley 
arms,  brackets,  hand  wheels,  and  rods.  Figs.  170  to  173  show 
some  examples. 

Location  of  Sectional  Views.  —  When  conditions  permit,  sec- 
tional views  should  be  placed  according  to  the  laws  of  projection 


SECTIONS 


73 


as  explained  in  Chapter  IV,  and  are  drawn  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  other  views  by  assuming  a  part  of  the  machine  or  parts  to 
have  been  removed.  When  many  sections  are  required  or  other 


74 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


reasons  make  it  necessary  to  place  the  sectional  views  in  another 
location,   arrows  and   notes    should   be   used   to   explain   them 

as  shown  in  Fig.  174. 
Extra  sectional  views 
are  often  very  useful 
in  explaining  parts  of  a 
machine  or  details  of  a 
part. 

Since  the  cutting 
plane  is  imaginary  it 
need  not  be  continu- 
ous; thus  several  sec- 
tions may  be  used  and 
the  views  represented 
as  though  occurring  on 
a  single  plane.  This  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  175, 
where  the  cutting 
plane  is  changed  as 
shown  in  the  top  view. 
Thus  the  front  sec- 
tion is  taken  on  the 
plane  A,  B,  C,  D,  E, 
F,  and  the  side  section 
on  a  plane  through  the 
center. 

Objects  not  Sectioned.  —  When  a  full  view  will  serve  the  same 
purpose  just  as  well  a  sectional  view  should  not  be  used.  This 
is  true  in  the  case  of  shafts,  bolts,  nuts,  screws,  rivets,  keys,  pulley 


,•: ', : ' : :"" 


Fig.  /77 


179 


arms,  etc.,  which  are  very  seldom  drawn  in  section  except  when 
the  cutting  plane  is  at  right  angles  to  the  long  dimension.  This 
treatment  of  a  section  is  shown  in  Fig.  176. 


SECTIONS 


75 


Dotted  Lines  on  Sectional  Views.  —  Very  often  a  sectional 
view  contains  only  the  outline  of  the  sectioned  surfaces  and  the 
full  lines  which  appear.  How  much  of  the  part  behind  the  plane 


Fig.  1 79        Fig.ldO         F/g./QI 


of  the  section  should  be  represented  must  be  determined  for  each 
particular  case.  When  an  object  is  represented  by  a  view  made 
up  of  one  half  in  section  and  one  half  exterior  most  or  all  of  the 


Fig.  162 

dotted  lines  may  be  omitted  from  both  halves,  as  was  done  in 
Fig.  175. 

Sections  of  Ribs  and  Symmetrical  Parts.  —  Ribs,  arms,  and 
gear  teeth  are  not  ordinarily  sectioned  even  though  they  appear 


76  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

on  the  plane  of  the  section.  Figs.  177  and  178  illustrate  such 
cases.  In  Fig.  177  the  plane  MN  passes  through  the  ribs,  but  is 
not  sectioned  in  the  other  view  as  it  would  give  a  false  impression 
of  solidity.  In  Fig.  178  the  true  projection  without  sectioning 
the  rib  is  shown  at  A,  while  the  usual  conventional  section  is 
shown  .at  B. 

The  representation  of  a  cylinder  head  in  Figs.  179,  180,  and  181, 
shows  a  similar  case.  A  true  section  on  the  plane  AB  is  given 
in  Fig.  179.  In  Fig.  180  the  section  is  taken  on  CD  and  revolved 
into  the  position  of  AB.  The  bolt  holes  and  lugs  are  then  located 
at  their  true  distances  from  the  center.  By  this  means  one  view 
could  be  made  to  represent  the  cylinder  head  by  adding  a  note 
to  give  the  number  of  lugs.  An  alternate  method  is  shown  in 
Fig.  181,  where  the  section  FE  is  revolved.  The  idea  in  all  cases 
is  to  avoid  a  view  which  might  in  any  way  be  confusing  and  to 
convey  the  true  shape  clearly. 

When  a  rib  occurs  on  the  plane  of  a  section  and  it  is  necessary 
to  distinguish  it,  coarse  sectioning  may  be  employed  as  in  the 
cone  pulley  of  Fig.  182  where  the  ribs  are  sectioned  but  alternate 
lines  are  omitted.  A  note  giving  the  number  and  thickness  of 
the  ribs  would  allow  the  end  view  to  be  dispensed  with.  Observe 
that  the  half  end  view  is  bounded  by  the  center  line  and  not  by 
a  full  line,  as  the  pulley  has  not  been  actually  cut  in  half. 


CHAPTER  XI 
DIMENSIONING 

Purpose  of  Dimensions.  —  The  purpose  of  dimensions  is  to 
give  the  necessary  figures  for  constructing  machine  parts  and 
putting  them  together.  A  drawing  gives  the  shape  of  an  object, 


Fig.  183 

the  dimensions  tell  the  size.     These  are  two  operations  and  both 
should  be  kept  in  mind. 

Dimension  Lines.  —  Dimension  lines  show  where  the  figures 
apply  to  the  drawing.  They  are  terminated  by  arrow  heads. 
The  arrow  heads  should  be  about  twice  as  long  as  they  are  wide. 


Fig.  184- 


Fig.  /8S 


Fig.  183  shows  the  construction  of  an  enlarged  arrow  head,  and 
its  proportions.  Fine  full  red  ink  lines  are  sometimes  used  for 
dimension,  center,  and  witness  lines.  The  arrow  heads  and 
figures  are  always  black.  The  figures  and  notes  should  always 
be  placed  so  as  to  read  from  the  lower  or  right  hand  side  of  the 

77 


78 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


drawing.  Never  use  slant  fraction  lines.  In  most  cases  it  is 
considered  bad  practice  to  place  the  figures  upright  as  shown  in 
Fig.  184  where  the  figures  may  be  easily  read  with  the  wrong- 
dimension  lines.  Fig.  185  shows  a  better  arrangement.  The 
witness  and  dimension  lines  should  be  as  fine  as  possible  so  as 
not  to  conflict  with  the  lines  of  the  drawing.  In  the  interest  of 
clearness  there  should  be  as  few  lines  as  possible  crossing  each 


/6Thd.U.SS 


i  Di 


- 


-f-i 


r 


L 


Ori// 


84  — 


Fig.  186 


other.  The  center  lines  and  object  lines  have  only  one  purpose 
and  should  never  be  used  as  dimension  lines.  Generally  the 
dimension  lines  can  be  kept  outside  of  the  views,  thus  keeping  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  object  separate.  In  such  cases  place  the 
larger  dimensions  outside  the  smaller  ones  as  in  Figs.  186  and 
188.  Fig.  187  shows  a  poorly  dimensioned  drawing  of  a  pump 
plunger  and  Fig.  188  the  same  piece  properly  dimensioned.  Fin- 
ished surfaces  are  ordinarily  indicated  by  a  letter  "/"  placed 
across  the  line  which  represents  the  surface  to  be  machined. 

Elements  of  Dimensioning.  —  Constructions  can  be  separated 
into  parts  and  these  parts  can  then  be  divided  into  geometrical 


DIMENSIONING 


79 


solids.  Each  of  the  solids  can  then  be  dimensioned  and  their 
relation  to  each  other  fixed.  Figs.  189  to  193  show  a  prism,  a 
pyramid,  a  cone,  and  a  cylinder  with  dimensions.  Figs.  194, 
195,  and  196  show  combinations.  Note  that  the  same  location 
of  dimensions  is  maintained.  In  dimensioning  cylinders  give  the 
diameters  on  the  elevation  as  in  Fig.  195.  Placing  of  the  five 


Fig.  187 


Fig.  188 


diameters  on  the  end  view  would  result  in  crowding  as  well  as 
inconvenience  in  reading  figures  placed  at  an  angle.  Always 
give  a  diameter  in  preference  to  a  radius  if  the  part  is  a  complete 
cylinder.  For  quarter  rounds,  fillets,  and  part  circles  give  the 
radius. 

General  Rules.  —  To  dimension  a  drawing  successfully  the 
construction  of  the  pattern,  machining,  fitting,  and  putting  to- 
gether of  the  machine  must  be  gone  over.  It  is  necessary  to  keep 
constantly  in  mind  the  person  to  whom  the  drawing  is  addressed 
and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used. 


80 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Hints: 


Do  not  hurry, 

Give  sizes  of  pieces  for  the  pattern  maker, 

Give  sizes  and  finish  for  the  machinist, 

Give  assembly  dimensions, 

Give  office  dimensions, 

Give  notes  where  needed. 


m  194. 


Fig.  195 


It  is  necessary  to  remember  that  surfaces  and  not  lines  are 
being  located.  The  dimensions  of  the  piece  must  be  kept  in 
mind.  Detail  drawings  are  generally  made  to  serve  both  pattern 
maker  and  machinist,  and  the  figures  indicate  the  size  of  the 
finished  piece.  The  pattern  maker  is  left  to  make  required 
allowances  for  finish,  shrink,  and  draft.  In  the  case  of  forgings 
two  drawings  are  sometimes  made,  one  for  the  blacksmith  giv- 
ing the  rough  sizes,  and  another  for  the  machinist  giving  the 
finished  sizes. 

Systems  of  Dimensioning.  —  Four  general  systems  of  dimen- 
sioning may  be  mentioned  as  follows: 

1.  All  figures  outside  of  the  object  lines. 

2.  All  figures  inside  of  the  object  lines. 

3.  All  figures  given  from  two  reference  lines  at  right  angles  to  each 

other. 

4.  A  combination  of  the  preceding  three  systems. 


DIMENSIONING 


81 


The  four  systems  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  197  to  200.  The 
first  method  is  to  be  favored  as  the  dimension  lines  and  figures 
are  kept  separate  from  the  interior  and  allow  details  to  be  easily 
seen.  The  size  and 
shape  are  separated. 
The  second  method 
may  be  used  when 
there  is  little  detail 
within  the  view.  It 
preserves  the  outline 
of  the  view  but  often 
there  is  confusion  due 
to  the  crossing  of  the 
lines  and  crowding  of 
the  figures.  The  third  method  is  particularly  adapted  to  plate 
work  and  laying  out  where  holes  must  be  carefully  located. 

The  fourth  method  is  the  one  generally  used  but  making  it 


II 

!  i 

t 
* 

i 

\ 

^ 

1#- 
at± 

te 

**-D— 

\L 

Fig.  196 


.  I9e 


conform  to  the  first  system  by  placing  dimensions  outside  when- 
ever it  is  conveniently  possible. 

Location  of  Dimensions.  —  Facility  in  manufacture  should  be 
a  motto  in  dimensioning.  The  figures  must  be  so  placed  as  to  be 
easily  found  and  perfectly  clear  in  their  meaning  when  found. 
Select  that  view  which  most  completely  defines  the  object  and 
start  with  it  first.  If  an  assembly  drawing,  dimension  only  one 
piece  at  a  time  and  finish  all  views  of  that  one  piece  before  starting 
another.  Put  on  similar  dimensions  at  the  same  time,  as  diame- 
ters, lengths,  etc.  Do  not  jump  from  one  piece  to  another.  Work 
from  the  more  important  dimensions  to  those  of  less  importance. 


82 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


See  that  all  center  distances  are  given.  Consider  the  effect  of 
location  upon  ease  of  reading  the  drawing.  Similar  pieces  should 
be  dimensioned  in  exactly  the  same  way.  Fig.  201  shows  a  gland, 


g.  /99 


Fig.  200 


Fig.  202  a  pump  valve,  and  Fig.  203  a  cylinder  head.  They  are 
all  similar  pieces  and  the  dimensions  are  located  in  the  same 
places  on  each.  In  the  three  figures  the  similar  dimensions  are 
indicated  by  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  etc. 

By  observing  such  methods  a  system  of  dimensioning  can  be 


Pig.  20 / 


employed  which  will  save  a  great  deal  of  time  and  many  mistakes 
and  omissions.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to  repeat  the  same  dimen- 
sion on  a  drawing.  Drilling  is  generally  best  located  in  the 
view  where  it  shows  in  plan,  that  is,  in  the  view  where  it  is  laid 
out.  Diameters  are  always  clearer  when  shown  on  a  section 


DIMENSIONING 


83 


or  elevation  rather  than  on  an  end  view.  The  drilling  for  flanges 
is  dimensioned  by  giving  the  diameter  of  the  bolt  circle  and 
the  size  of  bolt  holes  or  bolts.  The  holes  are  understood  to  be 
equally  spaced  unless  noted  otherwise. 

Shafting.  —  Shafting  should  be  dimensioned  by  giving  the 
diameters  and  lengths  together  with  the  sizes  of  keyways  and 
pins  and  their  location.  Shafting  is  made  from  various  grades 
of  wrought  iron  and  steel.  For  many  purposes  cold  rolled  shafting 
is  generally  used.  This  is  shafting  which  has  been  cleaned  of 
scale  and  rolled  under  pressure.  It  can  be  used  without  the 


I 


Fig.  202 


necessity  for  turning  and  is  considerably  strengthened  by  the 
surface  skin  which  comes  from  the  rolling  process.  Hot  rolled 
shafting  is  black  and  must  be  turned  to  size  before  using.  Usual 
sizes  are: 

NOMINAL  DIAMETERS  OF  SHAFTING 


l'/4 

2V, 

4 

.     IV. 

2'/4 

4V, 

IV  4 

3 

5 

2 

3V, 

5V, 

2V4 

3V2 

6 

These  are  nominal  sizes  and  are  Vie  inch  larger  than  actual 
diameter.  Thus  a  2-inch  shaft  is  I15/i6"  actual  diameter.  Com- 
mon lengths  vary  up  to  24  feet.  Special  shafts  have  to  be  forged 
of  steel  suitable  for  the  particular  purpose.  A  shaft  drawing  is 
shown  in  Fig.  204  with  the  positions  of  the  dimensions. 


84 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Tapers.  —  Various  methods  are  in  use  for  designating  tapers. 
Figs.  205,  206,  and  207  show  ways  of  indicating  the  two  diameters 
and  the  length.  Sometimes  a  note  is  employed  giving  the  taper 


per  foot  of  length  as,  "V/'  per  foot"  When  the  slope  is  con- 
siderable it  may  be  given  as  1 : 1,  indicating  a  45°  slope.  In  other 
cases  the  angle  may  be  given  in  degrees.  In  addition  there  are 


. 

i 

E  i- 

^tf 

* 

Fig.  2O4 

a  number  of  standard  tapers  in  use  such  as  B  &  S  (Brown  & 
Sharpe),  Morse  Tapers,  Reed  Lathe  Center  Tapers,  Jarno  Tapers, 
and  Sellers  Tapers.  In  such  cases  the  taper  is  indicated  by  a 
number  which  fixes  the  three  dimensions,  large  diameter,  small 
diameter,  and  length.  A  machinist's  handbook  should  be  con- 
sulted for  complete  information. 


DIMENSIONING 


85 


Small  Parts.  —  There  are  many  small  parts  such  as  shafts, 
pulleys,  etc.,  which  can  be  defined  in  one  view  by  using  a  note 
to  give  the  missing  dimensions.  When  clearness  is  not  sacrificed 
it  is  better  to  use  this  method  in  many  cases.  Small  details 
which  are  standardized  do  not  need  to  be  completely  dimen- 
sioned. This  is  true  for  bolts  and  screws,  standard  tapers,  piping, 
wire,  sheet  metal,  rope,  chain,  pins,  rolled  steel  shapes. 

Methods  of  Finishing.  —  In  connection  with  dimensions  the 
limits  of  accuracy  for  all  fits  should  be  given.  The  method  of 


Fig.  205 


Fig.  20 6       \Fig.e07 


finishing  is  given  in  another  chapter,  and  should  be  indicated 
by  a  note  and  arrow. 


1.  Rough. 

2.  Rough  turned. 

3.  Ground. 

4.  Polished. 

5.  Reamed. 

6.  Cored. 

7.  Running  fit. 


8.  Loose  fit. 

9.  Driving  fit. 

10.  Scraped. 

11.  Finished. 

12.  Drilled. 

13.  Chipped. 

14.  Spot  faced. 


Checking  Drawings.  —  The  checking  of  a  drawing  is  one  of 
the  important  duties  of  most  draftsmen.  Whenever  possible  it 
should  be  done  by  someone  who  has  not  worked  on  the  drawing. 
The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  see  if  the  drawing  can  be  used  without 
unnecessary  difficulty,  and  to  see  if  the  parts  are  such  as  will  fit 
and  operate  successfully.  There  must  be  clearance  for  moving 
parts.  Then  observe  if  sufficient  views  are  given  to  completely 
determine  the  parts,  and  that  all  dimensions  necessary  for  machin- 
ing and  erecting  are  given  and  that  they  are  properly  located. 
Check  the  correctness  of  all  figures  by  use  of  the  scale  and  by 
computation.  All  notes  should  contain  a  clear  statement  and 


86  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

be  carefully  located.  Standard  parts  should  be  used  where 
possible.  See  that  the  fewest  number  of  different  sizes  of  bolts 
and  similar  small  parts  are  used.  Consider  the  materials  of 
which  the  parts  are  made,  the  construction  of  the  patterns  and 
cores,  and  the  method  of  machining.  A  valuable  article  on 
"How  Machinery  Materials  and  Supplies  are  Sized"  is  given  in 
"Machinery,"  February,  1916. 


CHAPTER  XII 
MACHINE    CONSTRUCTION 

Machine  Operations.  —  The  parts  of  machines  which  come 
from  the  foundry,  forge,  or  rolling  mill  generally  require  finishing, 
such  as  machining  to  size,  drilling,  tapping  of  holes,  etc.,  before 
they  can  be  assembled  in  the  machine  of  which  they  are  to  be  a 
part.  A  knowledge  of  what  is  involved  in  the  processes  of  ma- 
chining is  important  to  the  machine  draftsman.  The  principal 
machine  operations  are  turning,  drilling,  boring,  planing,  and 
milling.  The  machines  used  are  lathes,  drills,  boring  mills, 
planers,  milling  machines,  shapers,  etc. 

In  order  to  pursue  the  subject  of  drawing  with  profit  at  least 


Pig.  SO 8  Fig.  2O9 

one  book  on  machine  tools  should  be  purchased  and  studied. 
The  advertising  pages  as  well  as  the  reading  pages  of  such  mag- 
azines as  "American  Machinist"  and  "Machinery"  are  further 
sources  of  information  which  should  not  be  neglected.  Every 
opportunity  should  be  availed  of  to  observe  and  study  work  as 
it  is  carried  out  in  pattern  shop,  forge,  foundry,  and  machine  shop. 
Such  knowledge  is  invaluable  and  will  often  enable  the  draftsman 
materially  to  reduce  the  expense  of  production  by  simplifying  or 
adapting  his  designs. 

Drills.  —  Drills  are  used  for  making  holes  of  comparatively 
small  diameter.  Two  forms  of  drills  are  shown  in  Figs.  208  and 
209.  The  first  is  a  flat  drill  and  the  second  a  twist  drill.  The 
latter  is  the  form  in  general  use.  Drills  are  used  in  different 
forms  of  machines.  Look  up  the  following  in  the  advertising 
pages  of  "American  Machinist"  or  "Machinery":  Sensitive  Drill, 
Drill  Press,  Multiple  Drill. 

87 


88 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


The  Steam  Engine.  —  It  is  important  for  the  draftsman  to 
learn  the  names  of  the  parts  of  the  steam  engine.  Fig.  210  shows 
the  principal  parts. 


Fig 


1.  Cylinder  head. 

2.  Piston. 

3.  Casing  or  lagging  strip. 

4.  Cylinder. 

5.  Piston  rod. 

6.  Steam  chest  cover. 

7.  Steam  port. 


8.  Slide  valve. 

9.  Exhaust  port. 

10.  Valve  rod  stuffing  box. 

11.  Valve  rod  gland. 

12.  Valve  rod. 

13.  Eccentric  rod. 

14.  Eccentric. 


MACHINE  CONSTRUCTION 


15.  Outer  bearing. 

16.  Main  shaft. 

17.  Flywheel. 

18.  Inner  bearing. 

19.  Crank. 

20.  Crank  pin. 

Steam  is  admitted  to  alternate  sides  of  the  piston  by  means  of 
the  slide  valve  which  is  actuated  by  the  eccentric  through  the 
eccentric  rod.  The  piston  transmits  the  pressure  of  the  steam 


21.  Frame. 

22.  Crosshead  pin. 

23.  Crosshead. 

24.  Crosshead  guide. 

25.  Connecting  rod. 


Fiq. 


Fig.  2/2 


through  the  piston  rod,  crosshead,  and  connecting  rod  to  the 
crank.  The  crank  causes  the  shaft  to  revolve,  carrying  with  it 
the  flywheel,  from  which  power  may  be  transmitted  by  means  of 
a  belt. 

Pistons.  —  Pistons  are  used  in  many  forms  of  machines  and 
vary  accordingly.  Some  forms  are  shown  in  Figs.  211  and  212. 
The  names  of  the  parts  for  the  form  of  steam  piston  shown  in 

Fig.  212,  are 

1.  Piston  Body, 

2.  Follower, 

3.  Follower  Bolts, 

4.  Bull  Ring, 

5.  Packing  Rings. 

To  prevent  loss  of  pressure  by  leakage  past  the  piston  some  form 
of  packing  ring  is  generally  employed.  Pistons  are  most  always 


90 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


made  of  cast  iron  as  are  the  rings.  The  rings  are  turned  to  a 
slightly  larger  diameter  than  the  cylinder.  A  piece  is  then  cut 
out  and  the  ring  is  then  sprung  into  place.  For  water  pistons 


Fiy.  213 


Fig.  2/4 


Fig.  2/5 


a  soft  packing  of  hemp,  fiber,  or  leather  is  used.     For  large  vertical 
engines  steel  pistons  are  sometimes  used. 

Sliding  Bearings.  —  Sliding  bearings  are  of  many  forms,  as 
shown  in  the  following  figures.  The  general  end  sought  is  to 
have  the  projected  area  of  slide  such  that  the  pressure  will  not 
force  out  the  lubricant  and  allow  the  metals  to  come  into  contact 
with  each  other.  Smoothness  of  surfaces  is  only  relative  and 


F/g.  216 


F/g.  217 


Fig.  2 16 


surfaces  in  contact  wear  rapidly,  hence  the  necessity  for  efficient 
lubrication. 

Fig.  213  shows  a  form  of  planer  guide.  It  is  self-adjusting  for 
wear  and  can  be  easily  oiled.  There  is,  however,  considerable 
pressure  between  the  inclined  surfaces,  which  means  that  the 
power  for  operating  the  table  increases  as  the  angle  A  is  de- 
creased, and  also  the  wear.  A  is  commonly  made  90°  or  less  for 
small  planers,  while  for  heavy  planers  it  may  be  110°  or  more. 
The  side  pressure  of  the  tool  must  be  considered  in  selecting  the 
proper  value  of  A  since  it  exerts  a  tendency  to  raise  the  table 
from  the  ways. 


MACHINE  CONSTRUCTION 


91 


Fig.  214  shows  the  form  generally  used  for  lathe  ways.  It  is 
self-adjusting,  does  not  readily  hold  chips  or  dirt,  but  is  not  so 
easily  kept  oiled  as  Fig.  213. 

There  are  many  other  forms  of  such  bearing  surfaces,  some  of 
which  are  provided  with  gibs  for  adjusting,  as  in  Fig.  215.  Com- 


Fig.  22 1 


mon  forms  of  crosshead  guides  for  steam  engines  are  shown  in 
Figs.  216,  217,  and  218.  Fig.  218  is  used  on  all  sizes  of  engines, 
and  is  satisfactory,  since  it  allows  the  crosshead  to  adjust  itself 
to  the  crank  pin  and  connecting  rod  if  turned  concentric  with  the 


F/g.  223 


cylinder.  Sometimes,  however,  the  guides  are  turned  with  centers 
as  in  Fig.  219.  This  prevents  turning. 

For  small  pressures  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  220  is  often  used, 
sometimes  with  one  rod  only.  Fig.  221  is  another  form  of  sliding 
bearing.  The  pressure  per  square  inch  of  projected  area  on  cross- 
head  guides  should  not  exceed  100  pounds  per  square  inch  and 
may  well  be  kept  as  low  as  40  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Wear  and  Pressure.  —  Where  there  is  much  wear  care  must 
be  used  in  the  design  of  a  sliding  bearing  and  guide.  Provision 
should  always  be  made  for  running  over  at  the  ends  of  the  guide. 
The  same  applies  to  the  width  of  the  guide.  The  effect  of  guides 
which  are  too  long  is  shown  much  exaggerated  by  the  shoulder 


92 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


"C"  in  Fig.  222.  Fig.  223  shows  the  correct  design  in  which  the 
slide  runs  over  the  guide  at  each  end  and  causes  more  even  wear. 
If  "A"  and  " B"  are  made  of  equal  length  there  will  be  equal 
wear.  This  same  principle  is  involved  in  the  piston  and  cylinder 
of  a  steam  engine  which  accounts  for  the  counterbore  over  which 


Fig.  ^26 


Pig.  236 


the  piston  runs,  "C"  (Fig.  224),  and  similarly  for  slide  valve  seats 
(Fig.  225). 

Stuffing  Boxes.  —  Some  common  forms  of  gland  and  screw 
stuffing  boxes  used  on  engines,  pumps,  etc.,  for  preventing  leakage 
of  steam  or  water  around  the  piston  rod  where  it  passes  through 
the  end  of  the  cylinder  are  shown  in  Figs.  226,  227,  and  228.  For 
rods  P/4  inch  in  diameter  or  less  the  common  screw  stuffing 


F/ange 


fig.SS9 


f/ff.  ^ 


Fig.  S3/ 


box,  Fig.  228,  may  be  used.  They  are  generally  made  of  com- 
position although  they  are  sometimes  made  of  cast  iron  for  cheap 
work.  The  gland  stuffing  box  (Figs.  226  and  227)  is  used  for 
rods  iVa  inch  and  more  in  diameter.  The  box  should  be  deep 
enough  for  four  strands  of  packing  and  the  gland  so  constructed 
as  to  be  able  to  compress  it  to  about  one  half  its  original  size. 
These  glands  may  have  the  bottom  of  the  gland  and  box  beveled 
as  shown  in  Fig.  227.  They  may  be  lined  with  composition  in 
which  case  the  lining  should  be  at  least  Vie  inch  thick,  but  for 
rods  less  than  2'/2  inch  diameter  it  is  generally  advisable  to 
make  the  gland  entirely  of  composition.  These  are  the  com- 
mon forms,  but  the  student  will  do  well  to  investigate  some  of 


MACHINE  CONSTRUCTION 


93 


the  various  types  of  metallic   packings,  since  they  are   largely 
used  in  good  designs. 

Useful  Curves  and  Their  Application.  —  There  are  many  small 
details  in  the  actual  drafting  of  a  design  which  often  give  trouble 
out  of  proportion  to  their  apparent  importance  when  first  en- 


Fig.  S3 2 


/ff.  234- 


countered.  The  following  suggestions  are  made  to  facilitate 
the  drafting  part  of  design,  and  not  as  rules  to  be  strictly  adhered 
to.  Various  curves  which  are  commonly  used  are  shown. 

Fillets  and  Rounds.  —  The  drawing  of  fillets  and  quarter 
rounds  deserves  attention,  since  they  are  of  so  frequent  occurrence. 
Fig.  229  shows  a  portion  of  a  machine.  The  centers  and  radii 
of  the  various  arcs  are  indicated.  All  radii  are  too  large,  but 


fig.  S39 


especially  1  and  2.  Radius  1  gives  a  point  at  y.  Radius  2  is  so 
large  that  it  cannot  be  used  for  the  complete  circumference  of 
the  boss  as  indicated  at  x.  Of  course  a  changing  radius  of  fillet 
might  be  used,  but  this  would  not  allow  the  use  of  ready  made 
fillet  strips.  Fig.  230,  in  which  the  limiting  radii  are  used,  is  an 
improvement.  Fig.  231  shows  a  much  better  design.  Note  that 
the  radii  1  and  2  are  less  than  the  thickness  of  the  flange  and 
boss  respectively.  The  effect  of  a  quarter  circle  is  obtained  by 
this  method  in  which  the  flange  and  boss  each  start  with  a  straight 
line.  The  straight  line  also  produces  a  better  appearance  after 
finishing  off  the  surface  of  the  boss.  This  is  shown  in  Figs.  232, 
233,  and  234,  where  the  effect  of  different  fillets  is  indicated  at  B 


94 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


in  each  of  the  views.  In  the  first  case  there  is  an  undercutting, 
in  the  second  view  B  shows  the  irregular  outline  produced,  while 
the  third  case  shows  the  correct  design. 

Arcs  and  Straight  Lines.  —  When  arcs  are  used  in  connection 
with  straight  lines  the  fault  shown  at  a  in  Figs.  235  and  237  should 
be  avoided.  Do  not  run  the  arc  past  the  tangent  point  "a", 
and  notice  that  the  line  a-b  is  a  straight  line  in  Figs.  236  and  238. 


F/'g.  s*?o 


At  A  in  Fig.  239  is  shown  the  effect  of  not  changing  the  radius 
when  two  parallel  lines  are  continued  by  arcs.  At  B  the  thick- 
ness of  material  has  been  kept  by  maintaining  the  same  center 
and  changing  the  radius  by  the  distance  t. 

Flanged  Projections.  —  When  flanged  projections  are  used 
with  bolts  or  nuts  they  may  take,  a  variety  of  shapes,  some  of 


Fig.  ^44- 


Fig.  ^<?5 


Fig.  24-  7 


Fig.  2  4  3 


which  are  shown  in  Figs.  240  to  243.  After  locating  the  centers 
of  the  bolt  holes  the  extent  of  the  flange  may  be  found  by  adding 
twice  the  bolt  diameter  to  the  distance  between  bolt  centers. 
Frequently  the  outline  is  obtained  as  in  Fig.  240  in  which  an  arc 
is  drawn  from  the  center  of  the  bolt  hole  with  a  radius  equal  to 
the  diameter  of  the  bolt. 

A  much  better  appearance  is  obtained  by  using  a  larger  radius 
whose  center  is  at  the  intersection  of  the  bolt  hole  and  the  center 
line,  as  shown  in  Fig.  241.  Either  straight  or  curved  lines  may 


MACHINE  CONSTRUCTION 


95 


be  used  to  join  the  small  and  large  arcs.  Sometimes  an  ellipse 
may  be  used.  A  gland  is  used  for  illustration,  but  similar  cases 
occur  in  pipe  connections,  the  bolted  feet  of  machines,  etc. 

Flange  Edges.  —  Flanges  are  often  finished  with  curves  so  as 
to  avoid  machining.  Several  forms  are  shown  in  Figs.  244  to 
248.  The  radius  R  may  be  taken  equal  to  the  thickness  T.  The 
centers  for  the  various  radii  are  indicated. 

Flanges  and  Bolting.  —  A  method  of  finding  the  diameter  of 
bolt  circle  and  diameter  of  flange  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  249,  250, 
and  251.  For  through  bolts  consider  Figs.  249  and  250.  Draw 


in  a  proper  fillet  at  r\.  For  a  trial  the  radius  rv  may  be  taken 
as  one  fourth  of  the  thickness  of  the  cylinder  wall  t.  Then  lay 
off  X,  equal  to  one  half  the  distance  across  flats  of  bolt  head, 
and  Y,  equal  to  one  half  the  distance  across  corners  of  nut.  The 
diameter  of  the  bolt  circle,  DB,  may  now  be  found  by  laying  a 
scale  on  the  drawing  and  selecting  a  dimension.  This  will  be 
equal  to,  or  greater  than,  d+  2(£  +  TI  +  X),  and  may  be  taken 
at  the  nearest  Vsth  inch.  The  flange  diameter  may  then  be 
obtained  by  laying  out  the  distance  Y,  as  in  Fig.  249,  and  using 
the  scale  to  find  an  even  dimension  equal  to,  or  greater  than, 
DB  +  2(  Y  +  r2).  The  radius  r2  may  be  taken  at  Vsth  to  Vwth 
the  thickness  of  the  flange.  When  studs  are  used  the  diameters 
DB  and  DF  may  be  greatly  decreased  as  shown  in  Fig.  251.  The 
distance  C  should  be  about  equal  to  t,  although  if  necessary  it 
can  be  made  equal  to  one  half  the  diameter  of  the  bolt. 

Keys.  —  Keys  of  various  forms  are  used  to  prevent  relative 
motion  between  shafts  and  pulleys,  gears,  crank  arms,  etc.  The 
common  forms  are  here  shown.  Fig.  252  is  called  a  saddle  key 
and  may  be  used  where  only  a  small  force  is  to  be  transmitted 


96 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


and  where  close  or  frequent  adjustment  is  required.  Fig.  253  is 
called  a  flat  key,  and  requires  a  flat  spot  upon  the  shaft.  Its 
holding  power  is  a  little  greater  than  the  preceding  form.  Set 
screws  are  sometimes  used  with  Figs.  252  and  253  to  secure  a 
closer  contact.  Fig.  254  is  the  most  common  form,  and  may  be 
either  square  or  rectangular  in  section.  The  sides  of  the  key 
should  fit  closely  in  the  hub  and  shaft.  Various  proportions 
are  given  for  keys.  Square  keys  are  often  made  with 


Fig.  253 


/g.  255 
Other  proportions  are 


F/'g.  256 


F/g.  257 


Unwin  gives 


W 
T 


The  taper  for  keys  may  be  from  Vieth  to  Visths  of  an  inch  per 
foot  of  length.     One  eighth  inch  is  often  used.     The  key  should 


MACHINE  CONSTRUCTION  97 

be  half  in  the  shaft  and  half  in  the  hub.  When  the  force  to 
be  transmitted  is  very  large  two  keys  may  be  used.  In  such 
cases  they  are  generally  placed  90°  apart.  The  length  of  keys 


I  l  (  ) 


Pig.  258  f/g.  259  F/ff. 

should  be  one  and  one  half  or  more  times  the  diameter  of  the 
shaft.  Fig.  256  shows  the  Lewis  key,  invented  by  Wilfred  Lewis. 
The  direction  of  rotation  for  the  driving  shaft  is  indicated.  It 
will  be  noted  that  this  form  is  wholly  under  compression.  Fig. 
255  is  a  different  way  of  locating  a  square  key.  The  side  S  may 
be  taken  as  one  fourth  the  diameter  of  the  shaft.  Fig.  257  shows 
a  round  key.  It  is  a  desira- 
ble form  when  it  can  be  used, 
as  when  located  at  the  end 
of  a  shaft.  Fig.  258  shows 
the  ordinary  plain  key;  Fig. 
259,  a  key  provided  with  a  gib 
to  make  its  removal  easier. 
Fig.  260  shows  a  round  end 

key  which  may  be  fitted  into  a  shaft.  Such  keys  are  often  used 
when  it  is  desired  to  arrange  for  a  part  to  slide  on  the  shaft. 
When  a  long  key  is  secured  in  a  shaft  and  used  for  this  purpose  it 
is  called  a  feather  or  feather  key.  Square  end  keys  may  be  used 
in  the  same  way.  Fig.  261  shows  the  Woodruff  Key,  which  con- 
sists of  a  part  of  a  circular  disc.  They  are  made  rn  a  variety  of 
sizes  with  dimensions  suiting  them  to  different  purposes.  The 
circular  seating  allows  the  key  to  assume  the  proper  taper  when 
a  piece  is  put  onto  the  shaft. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
SKETCHING 

Uses  of  Sketching.  —  Freehand  sketching  is  of  particular 
importance  hi  connection  with  drafting  and  will  be  briefly  con- 
sidered in  this  chapter.  All  that  has  been  said  in  the  previous 
chapters  concerning  the  theory  and  practice  of  drafting  applies 
to  freehand  sketching.  The  term  sketching  must  not  be  con- 
sidered as  indicating  incompleteness,  for  if  anything  a  sketch 
must  be  more  complete  than  a  mechanically  executed  drawing. 
Sketching  is  the  engineering  language  of  the  trained  executive 
as  well  as  a  convenient  and  quick  method  of  representation. 
Sketches  are  used  to  give  information  from  which  parts  are  to  be 
made;  they  are  used  for  repair  parts;  new  parts;  as  an  aid  to 
reading  drawings;  as  an  aid  to  design;  as  a  means  of  recording 
ideas,  and  for  many  other  purposes. 

Accuracy  of  thought,  observation,  representation,  and  pro- 
portion are  essential.  The  four  "P's"  of  sketching  are  practice, 
patience,  proportion,  and  proficiency.  Too  much  emphasis  can- 
not be  put  upon  the  necessity  of  accuracy  in  proportion  and 
detail. 

A  most  interesting  example  is  shown  in  Fig.  262  which  is  a 
reproduction  of  a  sketch  for  the  first  steam  hammer  as  drawn  by 
James  Nasmith.  Quoting  from  Nasmith's  autobiography  by 
Samuel  Smiles:  *  "I  got  out  my  'scheme  book/  on  the  pages  of 
which  I  generally  thought  outj  with  the  aid  of  pen  and  pencil, 
such  mechanical  adaptations  as  I  had  conceived  in  my  mind,  and 
was  thereby  enabled  to  render  them  visible.  I  then  rapidly 
sketched  out  my  steam  hammer,  having  it  all  clearly  before  me 
in  my  mind's  eye.  In  a  little  more  than  half  an  hour  after  re- 
ceiving Mr.  Humphrie's  letter,  narrating  his  unlooked-for  diffi- 
culty, I  had  the  whole  contrivance  in  all  its  executant  details, 
before  me  in  a  page  of  my  scheme  book.  The  date  of  this  first 
drawing  was  November  24,  1839." 

*  Published  by  Harper  and  Bros.,  New  York. 


SKETCHING 


99 


Materials  for  Sketching.  —  The  materials  necessary  for  sketch- 
ing are  a  2H  drawing  pencil,  pencil  eraser,  art  gum,  and  paper. 
Either  plain  or  squared  paper  may  be  used,  but  it  is  better  to  use 
the  plain  paper  at  first  so  as  not  to  be  dependent  upon  the  aid 


m 


fi 


&*&    '-*»*«..  3^  ftff       || 
»4-^»  J^f,,^^    ;  ft- 


2fc  '^  ^/i^/te^. 


Fia.  262.  —  FIRST  DRAWING  OF  STEAM  HAMMER,  NOVEMBER  24,  1839. 

which  the  squares  give.  The  pencil  should  be  kept  well  sharpened 
with  a  long  round  point.  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  small  board 
on  which  the  paper  may  be  tacked,  or  clip  boards  such  as  are 
used  by  bookkeepers  will  be  found  very  convenient  as  a  means 
of  holding  the  paper.  Every  sketch  should  have  a  title,  the  date, 
and  the  name  of  the  person  who  made  it. 


100 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Making  a  Sketch.  —  To  make  a  sketch  the  following  order 
may  be  pursued.  First  examine  the  object,  determine  the  num- 
ber of  views  necessary  completely  to  define  it,  and  observe  the 
proportions.  Then  proceed  to  sketch  very  lightly,  locating 
center  lines  and  blocking  in  the  limits  for  all  views.  Sketch 
in  the  details  and  then  go  over  and  brighten  up  wherever  necessary 
in  order  to  make  all  parts  clear  and  definite.  Straight  lines  may 
be  drawn  by  making  a  succession  of  short  straight  lines  or  by 


Fig.  263 


Fig.  26S 


marking  points  and  drawing  from  one  point  to  another.  Views 
should  be  blocked  in  completely  with  straight  lines  regardless  of 
the  number  of  curves  and  circle  arcs. 

To  sketch  a  circle  draw  center  lines  at  right  angles  (Fig.  263), 
space  off  radii,  as  shown  in  Fig.  264,  on  the  center  lines  and  in 
between  them.  Another  method  is  to  block  in  a  square  made  up 
of  four  smaller  squares  (Fig.  265),  then  sketch  in  one  fourth  of 
the  required  circle  at  a  time. 

Taking  Measurements.  —  There  are  a  great  many  tools  used 
for  determining  the  sizes  of  machine  parts  and  constructions. 
The  names  of  some  of  the  tools  should  be  learned  together  with 
the  methods  of  using  them  and  the  conditions  under  which  they 
are  used.  For  this  purpose  the  reader  is  advised  to  secure  a 
catalog  of  machinist's  tools.  Some  of  the  tools  used  for  various 
purposes  are: 

The  two  foot  rule  for  comparatively  rough  work. 

The  standard  steel  rule  for  more  accurate  work.  It  should  have 
both  binary  and  decimal  divisions. 

Steel  tapes  used  for  measuring  rather  long  distances. 

Straight  edge,  used  for  extending  surfaces. 

The  square,  used  in  a  variety  of  forms;  fixed,  adjustable,  com- 
bination. 


SEE 


CHING 


There  are  many  forms;' 


Calipers,  used  for  obtaining  distances, 
outside,  inside,  spring,  transfer. 
Surface  plate  and  surface  gage. 
Depth  gage  and  hook  gage  or  scale. 
Plumb  bob. 
Micrometer. 
Vernier  caliper. 
Plug  and  ring  gages. 
Wire  and  sheet  metal  gages. 
Screw  thread  gages. 
Radius  gages. 


The  surfaces  to  be  measured  are  flat  surfaces  and  curved  sur- 
faces. These  will  appear  in  many  combinations  and  will  require 
separate  consideration  in  each  case.  Cylinders  may  be  measured 
directly  with  the  calipers  or  scale.  A  steel  tape  may  be  used  to 
measure  the  circum- 
ference of  a  large  cyl- 
inder and  the  diameter 
calculated.  Angular 


.  266 


measurements  are 
made  with  some  form 
of  protractor.  The  bevel  protractor  and  center  square  are  useful 
for  this  purpose.  The  use  of  chalk  or  a  marking  solution  is  often 
necessary  or  convenient.  Curved  outlines  may  be  obtained  by 
offset  measurements,  by  rubbing  an  outline  on  paper,  or  by 
making  a  template  by  such  means  as  the  conditions  permit. 
Center  distances  may  be  found  by  measuring  from  the  edge  of 
one  hole  to  the  corresponding  edge  of  the  next  hole  as  indicated 
in  Fig.  266. 

The  question  of  accuracy  in  taking  measurements  will  arise 
frequently.  The  finished  or  machined  parts  should  be  measured 
as  accurately  as  the  means  at  hand  will  allow.  Shafts  or  sliding 
blocks,  or  wherever  a  fit  is  involved,  should  be  measured  with  the 
micrometer  or  similar  accurate  means.  Rough  castings  of  small 
or  medium  size  may  be  measured  to  the  -nearest  Vieth  inch,  while 
larger  ones  may  be  near  enough  when  measured  to  Vs  or  even 
V-ith  inch.  In  all  cases  judgment  must  be  exercised,  and  when- 
ever in  doubt  take  measurements  as  closely  as  possible  under 
the  conditions. 


102 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Where  the  parts  being  sketched  are  for  repairs  or  replacement, 
very  accurate  measurements  are  often  required,  and  in  the  case 
of  a  fit  allowance  for  wear  must  be  made.  If  a  whole  new  machine 
or  construction  is  to  be  built  much  time  can  often  be  saved  by 
less  accurate  measurements,  as  the  parts  will  be  dimensioned  to 
go  together  when  the  final  drawing  is  made.  Ingenuity  and 
common  sense  are  the  primary  requisites. 

In  connection  with  measurements  it  will  be  necessary  to  know 
something  of  standard  nomenclature.  For  instance,  the  three 


-Com 


Groove  -  F~ile, 
Chip  or  Scratch 


Fig.  269 


rig.  267 


dimensions  of  a  taper  are  indicated  by  a  single  number  and  a 
name. 

Some  Ideas  on  Sketching.  —  The  difficulties  which  are  to  be 
met  and  overcome  when  making  sketches  under  trying  circum- 
stances with  limited  time,  inaccessability,  with  a  machine  in 
operation  in  close  quarters,  etc.  —  is  little  understood  or  appre- 
ciated by  those  accustomed  to  the  conveniences  of  the  drafting 
room. 

Many  times  sketches  are  made  only  for  one's  own  use  and 
so  can  perhaps  be  made  a  little  less  presentable  than  when  made 
to  take  the  place  of  a  drawing.  However,  there  is  a  warning 
which  must  be  sounded,  and  that  is  the  unvarying  rule  "to  pre- 
serve definiteness  under  all  circumstances."  A  sketch  may  be 
hastily  made,  but  a  careless  sketch  is  worse  than  useless.  Be 
sure  that  what  is  given  is  right  and  of  certain  meaning.  The 
steps  which  must  be  followed  in  making  a  sketch  are: 


SKETCHING 


103 


"Drill 

-3  Lugs 
Ui   tEguo /I y  Spaced 


Sketch  the  parts. 

Put  on  dimension  lines  and  notes. 

Measure  the  parts  and  fill  in  the  figures. 

Some  considerations  to  be  kept  in  mind  are:  — 

Use  part  views  to  show  special  features  or  details. 

Use  notes  freely  but  not  as  a  substitute  for  necessary  views. 

Show  hexagons,  octagons,  etc.,  across  flats  using  a  note  to  tell 
the  number  of  sides  or  insert  a  revolved  section. 

Note  identification  marks,  and  mark  parts  to  facilitate  putting 
them  together  and 
for  fixing  relative 
positions. 

Note  finished 
surfaces  and  kinds 
of  finish. 

Use  templates 
whenever  in  doubt 
as  to  curves,  loca- 
tion of  drilling,  etc. 

Note  materials 
of  which  machine 
or  p£  rts  are  made. 

Measure  sizes  of 
holes  as  well  as  of  U — 

bolts,  shafts,  etc. 

A  small  amount  of  surface  shading  is  often  of  value. 

Note  the  location  of  the  machine  in  reference  to  other  machines 
or  to  building  features  if  such  information  has  any  possibility  of 
being  useful. 

Rods,  bolts,  bars,  and  long  pieces  of  uniform  section  can  gen- 
erally be  shown  in  one  view. 

Most  machin  ,s  and  some  parts  of  machines  will  carry  the 
manufacturer's  name  and  identification,  sometimes  stamped  into 
the  machine,  and  sometimes  on  a  name  plate.  The  information 
given  in  this  manner  should  always  be  noted  in  connection  with 
the  sketch.  Sometimes  parts  are  either  right  or  left  hand,  and 
this  fact  should  be  noted.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  examine  all  parts 
very  carefully  for  identification  marks. 

When  parts  bear  a  definite  relation  to  one  another,  prick  punch 
marks  or  a  filed  groove  will  often  be  of  great  assistance  in  re- 


12 


104  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

assembling  (Figs.  267  and  268).  Oftentimes  the  top  or  bottom 
of  a  part  should  be  marked.  Where  a  number  of  bolts  are  used 
with  reamed  holes  they  are  often  numbered  or  otherwise  marked 
(both  bolt  holes  and  bolts,  Fig.  269).  Very  often  part  views  may 
be  used  to  save  time  by  adding  a  note: 
^or  ms^ance>  a  circular  object  with  lugs, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  270.  In  the  case  of 


\ 
f" 


_  cylindrical  objects  the  word  "diameter" 

will    often    save    a    view.     A    washer 

would  be  sketched  as  in  Fig.  271.  Sections  are  rather  freely 
used  in  sketching  as  they  give  prominence  to  the  sketch.  It  is 
often  desirable  to  make  a  separate  outline  sketch  without  dotted 
lines  in  connection  with  a  sectional  drawing  of  a  part,  especially 
when  the  sketches  must  be  hastily  made,  as  the  two  sketches 
result  in  less  confusion  than  when  combined  in  one  view. 

When  sketches  are  made  in  connection  with  diagrams  for  the 
transmission    of    power,    or    a 
mechanism  of  any  sort,  the  com- 

putations   should    be   included  k^x/'   /->     L   / 

,       .  ,.  -  r>-  ^     is/,  Corbel 

with  the    sketch,  and  existing 

pulleys  or  other  parts  should  be 

clearly  dimensioned    and   indi- 

cated to  distinguish  them  from 

proposed  additions.    In  the  case  usefu/  to  /ocate\ 

of  foundations  where  bolts  are   e/bo*/      p.. 

to  be  located,  differences  in  level 

must  be  considered  as  well  as  center  line  distances.     When  locat- 

ing shaft  hangers,  or  constructions  to  be  fastened  to  a  wall  or 

ceiling,  the  surroundings  such  as  parts  of  the  permanent  struc- 

ture,  like   beams  or   corbeling  of  the  brick    wall    (Fig.    272), 

should  be  measured  and  sketched  with  the  part  to  be  installed. 

The  principal  point  to  be  brought  out  in  connection  with  sketch- 
ing of  any  kind  is  to  leave  nothing  to  guess  —  to  have  too  much 
rather  than  too  little  information,  and  to  make  every  line  and  note 
absolutely  definite. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


ESTIMATION    OF    WEIGHTS 

Accuracy.  —  It  is  often  necessary  to  compute  the  weight  of 
machine  parts  or  of  piles  of  materials;  for  instance,  to  estimate 
the  amount  of  coal  on  hand.  The  annual  stock  taking  of  many 
companies  requires  much  of  this  work  which  must  be  accom- 
plished accurately  and  expeditiously.  Some  of  the  methods  used 
should  be  known  together  with  the  degree  of  accuracy  required. 
For  some  purposes  a  result  within  5  %  or  even  10  %  may  be  suf- 
ficiently close,  while  in  other  cases  an  accurate  result  may  be 
desirable,  as  when  figuring  a  large  number  of  pieces  of  expensive 
material .  The  weights  of  many  standard  parts  are  well  known 
and  are  given  in  manufacturers'  catalogs.  The  weights  of  steel 
shapes  are  known  and  tabulated  in  pounds  per  linear  foot,  the 
weight  of  bolts  per  100,  and  similarly  for  other  pieces. 

Weights  of  Materials.  —  The  following  weights  are  average 
values  for  various  materials  and  may  be  used  for  ordinary  cal- 
culations. 


Material 

Pounds  per 
Cubic  Inch 

Pounds  per 
Cubic  Foot 

Cast  Iron  

.26 

450 

Wrought  iron  

.28 

480 

Steel  

.29 

490 

Brass  

.30 

530 

Copper 

.32 

550 

Lead 

.41 

710 

Aluminum  

160 

Granite  

170 

Brick  

120 

Concrete  

145 

Water  

.036 

62.5 

Spruce  

30 

White  pine  

30 

Yellow  pine  

41 

Maple  

45 

Lignum  vitae  

83 

Oak  

50 

105 


106 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Weight  of  Loose  Materials.  —  In  estimating  the  amount  of 
material  in  a  pile,  its  shape  may  be  approximated  to  one  or  more 
geometrical  forms  and  its  volume  computed.  This  is  best  done 
by  making  a  sketch  with  dimension  lines  which  are  filled  in  with 
measurements.  Such  sketches  should  be  preserved  for  checking 
purposes  and  as  a  record.  The  weight  per  cubic  foot  or  yard  is 
then  obtained  by  loading  a  car  of  measured  volume  and  weighing 
it  or  by  filling  a  box  containing  a  cubic  foot  or  yard  and  finding 
the  net  weight.  The  material  should  of  course  be  disposed  as 


Fig. 


near  the  density  of  the  pile  as  possible.  By  careful  judgment 
and  some  experience  a  very  close  approximation  of  weight  may  be 
obtained  in  this  manner.  For  more  accurate  work,  the  surveyor's 
transit  may  be  used. 

Weight  of  Castings.  —  The  computation  of  the  weight  of  cast- 
ings most  frequently  occurs  either  in  connection  with  the  cost  or 
where  a  machine  must  come  within  certain  limits  of  weight. 
The  weight  may  be  calculated  from  the  drawings.  For  simple 
objects  this  is  not  difficult,  but  for  many  shapes  much  loss  of 
time  may  be  saved  by  systematic  methods  and  proper  division 
into  elementary  forms.  Two  sets  of  weights  must  be  considered; 
one  the  object  in  the  rough,  and  the  other  the  finished  piece. 
Allowances  for  finish  must  be  made.  It  is  necessary  to  know 
what  holes  or  openings  are  to  be  cored  and  what  ones  are  to  be 
machined.  Cylindrical  pieces  are  readily  figured  by  dividing 


ESTIMATION  OF  WEIGHTS 


107 


into  separate  cylinders.  Limits  as  to  weight  are  very  important 
when  machines  must  be  assembled  in  out  of  the  way  places,  or 
where  transportation  is  by  pack  mules  or  other  primitive  means. 

Methods  of  Calculation.  —  The  general  method  of  finding  the 
weight  of  a  piece  is  to  compute  its  total  volume  in  cubic  inches 
and  then  multiply  this  volume  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of 
the  material.  Most  pieces  may  be  divided  into  flat  plates,  cylin- 
ders, and  flanges,  each  of  which  should  be  lettered  and  tabulated. 
Sometimes  fillets  may  be  balanced  against  bolt  holes  or  against 
rounded  corners.  In  other  cases  the  fillets  may  be  considered 
as  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  whole.  The  weight  as  figured  should 
also  be  increased  to  allow  for  rapping  the  pattern  in  the  mold. 
The  allowance  for  finish  may  be  l/8"  for  general  work  but  this 
varies  with  different  classes  of  work  and  with  the  degree  of 
accuracy  required  in  the  finished  piece. 

When  a  piece  has  a  uniform  thickness  but  irregular  outline  it 
may  be  broken  up  into  plane  figures  and  the  area  of  each  found 
separately  (Fig.  273).  After  adding  them  together  multiply  by 
the  thickness  to  obtain  the  volume  and  then  by  the  unit  weight 
to  find  the  total  weight,  as  illustrated.  The  dash  lines  divide  the 
flat  surface  into  seven  parts,  each  of  which  is  lettered.  These 
may  be  listed  in  tabular  form. 


Designation 

Part 

Dimensions 
Inches 

Area 
Square  Inches 

A 

Rectangle 

4x3/4 

3. 

B 

11 

!3/4   X   1 

1.75 

C 

" 

51/  2  x  l'/4 

6.875 

D 

" 

41/  2  X  1 

4.5 

E 

Triangle 

V»(2V*  x  41/2) 

5.625 

F 

1/4(36  -  28.27) 

1.93 

G 

Circle 

l/4(3.1418) 

.785 

Total  area  square  inches .  .  . 
Volume  =  area  x  thickness 

=  24.47  x  1.25  =  30.59  cubic  inches 


24.465 


The  area  of  part  G  is  one  fourth  the  area  of  a  circle  having  the 
radius  indicated.     The  area  of  part  F  is  found  by  subtracting  one 


108 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


fourth  the  area  of  a  circle  having  the  radius  given  from  the  area 
of  a  square,  one  side  of  which  is  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  arc. 
With  irregular  shapes  the  area  is  sometimes  divided  approxi- 
mately into  regu- 
^ — r-  lar  figures,    the 
I     I      dimensions      for 
;     which    are     ob- 
•I          tained  by  apply- 


the  drawing.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  274  where  the  dash  line 
x-x  is  drawn  so  that  the  area  B  appears  to  be  equal  to  the  area 
A  +  A.  The  distance  H  is  then  measured  and  multiplied  by  L  to 
find  the  area.  In  the  case  of  hollow  pieces,  find  the  volume  as 
though  the  piece  was  solid,  then  subtract  the  volume  of  the  spaces. 


Fig.2Y5 

In  Fig.  275  the  volume  would  be  found  as  tabulated,  in  which 
the  A  and  B  are  called  plus  (+)  volumes  and  C  is  called  a  minus 
(— )  volume. 


Volume  in  Cubic  Inches 

Designation 

Part 

Dimension 

+ 

- 

A 

Square  prism 

3  X  3  X  2*/2 

22.5 

B 

Rectangular  plate 

5x6x1 

30. 

C 

Cylinder 

1  x  3.1416  x  3 

9.42 

Totals. 


52..r 


9.42 


(A  +  B)  -  C  =  Net  volume 
52.5  -  9.42  =  43  +  cubic  inches 


ESTIMATION  OF  WEIGHTS 


109 


For  the  ring  shown  in  Fig.  276  find  the  area  of  the  cross  section  A 
and  multiply  by  the  circumference  of  the  mean  diameter.  This 
method  is  often  a  convenient  one. 

Weight  of  Cylinder  Head.  —  To  find  the  approximate  weight 
of  the  small  cylinder  head  of  Fig.  277  it  may  be  divided  into 


Mean  Diameter 

rig.  S76 

three  cylinders,  two  positive  and  one  negative.  The  round  at 
x  may  be  balanced  against  the  fillet  at  y  for  approximation  pur- 
poses. Allow  say  Vieth  inch  on  each  of  the  finished  surfaces. 
The  calculations  will  be  as  tabulated. 


Designation 

Part 

Dimensions  Inches 

Volume  Cubic  Inches 

+ 

- 

A 
B 

C 

Cylinder 

28.27  x  Vie 
9.62  x  3/s 
4.91  x  3/s 

15.90 
3.61 

1.84 

Total  

19.51 

1.84 

(A  +  B)  -  C  =  net  volume 

19.51  -  1.84  =  17.67  cu.  in. 

Vol.  x  wt.  per  cu.  in.  =  total  weight 

17.67  x  .26  =  4.60  pounds 


110 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Weight  of  Plunger  Barrel.  —  To  approximate  the  weight  of 
the  pump  barrel  shown  in  Fig.  278.  First  divide  it  into  parts  as 
indicated  in  the  figure.  The  plus  volume  treats  it  as  a  solid. 
The  minus  volume  consists  of  the  interior  cylindrical  spaces 


ESTIMATION  OF  WEIGHTS 


111 


H,  G,  F,  and  J.  The  calculations  for  its  cost  at  ten  cents  per 
pound  follow.  For  any  other  price  multiply  by  the  required 
cents  per  pound  and  divide  by  ten.  Since  both  ends  are  alike 
only  one  half  is  figured  and  the  result  is  then  multiplied  by  two. 


Designation 

Part 

Dimensions  Inches 

Volume  Cubic  Inches 

+ 

- 

A 
B 

C 

D 
E 

F 
G 
H 
J 

Flange 
Stuff  box 

Main  cylinder 

Port  flange 
Foot  flange 

Cylinder 
Throat 
Stuff  box 
Port 

12  x  12  x  I1/  4 
T(7-5)2 

180 
154 

481 

62 
80 

274 
9 
116 
11 

E«WX14»/ 

7  x7  x  l»/4 
4x8  xl'/4 

^X14 

=SK.xV. 

^X4 

'<3)!      r  , 

Total  volumes  

957 

410 

Multiplied  by  2  for  two  ends  

1914 

820 

1094  cu.  in.  net  volume 
1094  x  .26  =  285,  pounds  weight 
285  x  .10  =  $28.50,  cost  of  casting  at  10  cents  per  pound 

Weight  of  Forgings.  —  Steel  and  wrought  iron  shafts  may 
be  readily  figured,  especially  when  turned  from  stock  bars  or 
rods.  Forgings,  however,  require  careful  consideration  as  the 
rough  forging  may  weigh  from  25  %  to  50  %  more  than  the  "finished 
piece,  especially  if  the  shape  is  at  all  complicated. 


CHAPTER  XV 
PIPING 

Piping  Materials.  —  Pipe  made  of  various  materials  is  used 
for  conveying  liquids  and  gases.  For  a  complete  treatment  of 
the  subject  of  piping  and  its  uses,  piping  drawings,  etc.,  see  the 
author's  "Handbook  on  Piping,"  D.  Van  Nostrand  Company, 
N.  Y.  The  illustrations  for  this  chapter  are  from  the  above  book. 


'  #  Left  Coi/p/ing 

Fig.  279 

Cast  iron  pipe  is  cheaply  made  and  is  used  for  underground 
gas,  water,  and  drain  pipes,  sometimes  for  steam  and  exhaust 
pipes  where  low  pressures  are  carried. 

Wrought  iron  or  steel  pipe  is  most  commonly  used,  especially 
where  high  pressures  are  encountered.  Copper  is  used  to  a  certain 
extent  where  there  is  limited  room.  For  hot  water  or  bad  water, 
brass  pipe  is  to  be  preferred  as  it  does  not  corrode  like  iron  or 
steel.  Spiral  riveted  steel  piping  is  often  used  for  large  pipes. 

Pipe  Fittings.  —  For  joining  lengths  of  pipe  and  making  turns 
and  connections,  "fittings"  are  used,  Fig.  279.  Such  fittings 
consist  of  flanges,  couplings,  tees,  ells,  crosses,  etc.  Small  pipe 
is  often  "made  up"  by  means  of  couplings  and  screwed  fit- 
tings —  large  sizes  use  flanges  and  flanged  fittings.  Some  general 
information  is  given  in  the  tables  included  in  this  chapter. 

112 


r 

OH       *. 


p 


X- 


~~^~~ 
~~\^T 


PIPING 

/£ -/re  -  P/f 
G/ot>e  V0/re 

Gaf-s  I4r/re 
Gate  Mr/re 

Ya/re 
F~ig.2dO 


113 


Throttle 


p 


Tee 


Check  Mr/re 


'G/obe  Va/re 


3 'Check  fo/re 


Fig  262 


114 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


The  representations  of  Figs.  280  and  281  are  often  used  when 
making  piping  layouts. 

Standard  Pipe.  —  Wrought  pipe  is  known  by  its  nominal  inside 
diameter.  In  the  United  States  the  Briggs  Standard  is  in  general 
use.  The  nominal  diameter  differs  from  the  actual  diameter  by 
varying  amounts,  as  indicated  in  the  Table.  Standard  pipe  is 


_J±L 


I     .075' 


Fig.  263 


used  for  pressures  up  to  125  pounds  per  square  inch.  Extra 
strong  and  double  extra  strong  pipe  are  made  for  use  at  higher 
pressures.  The  extra  thickness  is  obtained  by  reducing  the  in- 
side diameter,  the  outside  diameter  remaining  constant  for  a 
given  nominal  diameter.  The  actual  cross  sections  for  the 
three  weights  of  3/4  inch  pipe  are  shown  in  Fig.  282. 

Pipe  Threads.  —  Pipe  threads  are  cut  with  an  angle  of  60°, 
with  the  top  and  bottom  rounded,  making  the  height  .8  of  the 
pitch.  The  threads  are  also  cut  on  a  taper  of  three  fourths  inch 
per  foot  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  283. 

DIMENSIONS  OF  STANDARD  WROUGHT  PIPE 


Nominal 
Diameter, 
Inches 

Actual  Inside 
Diameter, 
Inches 

Actual 
Outside 
Diameter, 
Inches 

Threads 
per  Inch 

Length  of 
Perfect  Thread, 
Inches 

Vs 

.269 

.405 

27 

.19 

v« 

.364 

.540 

18 

.29 

3/8 

.493 

.675 

18 

.30 

v« 

.622 

.840 

14 

.39 

3/4 

.824 

1.050 

14 

.40 

1 

1.049 

1.315 

iiVi 

.51 

l'/4 

1.380 

1.660 

il»/i 

.54 

!*/• 

1.610 

1.900 

HVt 

.55 

2 

2.067 

2.375 

iiVi 

.58 

21/  2 

2.469 

2.875 

8 

.89 

3 

3.068 

3.500 

8 

.95 

3»/i 

3.548 

4.000 

8 

1.00 

4 

4.026 

4.500 

8 

1.05 

PIPING 


115 


DIMENSIONS  OF  WALWORTH  MFG.  Co.  CAST  IRON  FITTINGS 


Size  of 
Pipe, 

Inches 

A 

Inches 

A-A 
Inches 

B 

Inches 

C 

Inches 

D 

Inches 

E 

Inches 

F 
Inches 

G 
Inches 

'A 

3/4 

iVi 

Vl6 

1 

Vi 

Vs 

V« 

7/8 

W  4 

Vl6 

IVie 

i/u 

iVt 

•/If 

Vl6 

Vi 

!Vl6 

2'/8 

"/16 

!7/8 

2Vi« 

!Vl6 

3/8 

Vi 

3/4 

l«/M 

25/8 

13/16 

2Vl6 

23/4 

1V4 

Vl6 

Via 

1 

IVi 

3 

15/16 

2V2 

3V4 

21/  16 

Vi 

5/8 

1V4 

I13/  16 

35/8 

!Vl6 

3 

3V  4 

2'/2 

Vl6 

»/!• 

IVi 

2 

4 

P/16 

31/  4 

43/  4 

23/4 

6/8 

13/16 

2 

2»/s 

4V4 

!3/8 

4 

5*/i 

33/8 

U/16 

V« 

21/  2 

27/8 

W4 

!5/8 

5 

613/16 

4Vs 

13/16 

1 

3 

35/  16 

65/8 

1V« 

6V, 

7Vs 

4V  4 

15/16 

1 

3'/2 

3»/u 

73/8 

2Vl6 

63/8 

8V  4 

51/  4 

1 

!Vl6 

4 

4 

8 

21/  4 

7^/8 

93/  4 

6 

!Vl6 

1V« 

116 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


AMERICAN  STANDARD  PIPE  FLANGES 
125  Pounds  Working  Pressure 


Pipe  Size, 
Inches 

Diameter 
of  Flange, 
Inches 

Thickness 
of  Flange, 
Inches 

Diameter  of 
Bolt  Circle, 
Inches 

Number 
of 
Bolts 

Diameter 
of  Bolts, 
Inches 

1 

4 

Vl6 

3 

4 

Vl6 

iy« 

#/, 

»/• 

3Vs 

4 

Vl6 

iVi 

5 

Vl6 

3Vs 

4 

»/l 

2 

6 

»/• 

43/  4 

4 

6/8 

2Vi 

7 

"/16 

5V2 

4 

'/• 

3 

7>A 

3/4 

6 

4 

6/8 

8»/i 

8»A 

13/16 

7 

4 

8/8 

4 

9 

15/16 

7V  2 

8 

8/8 

4>/i 

91/  4 

15/16 

73/4 

8 

3/4 

5 

10 

15/16 

81/  2 

8 

3/4 

6 

11 

1 

91/  2 

8 

3/4 

7 

I2»/i 

!Vl6 

103/4 

8 

3/4 

8 

»/i 

!*/• 

1P/4 

8 

3/4 

CHAPTER  XVI 


INTERSECTIONS 

The  Line  of  Intersection.  —  The  line  of  intersection  of  two 
surfaces  is  that  line  which  contains  all  the  points  which  are  on 
both  of  the  surfaces.  Objects  in  general  are  made  up  of  parts 
and  where  these  parts  come  together  there  is  said  to  be  a  line  of 
intersection,  as  shown  in  Figs. 
285  and  286.  The  chimney 
intersects  the  roof  and  there  is 
also  an  intersection  between 
the  dormer  window  and  the 
roof.  The  intersection  be- 
tween two  cylinders  is  shown 
in  Fig.  286. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  determine  the  intersection  of  two  sur- 
faces, either  to  find  the  appearance  or  for  purposes  of  develop- 
ment. 

The  intersection  between  two  planes  is  a  straight  line  as  shown 
in  Fig.  287.  If  these  planes  cut  a  cylinder  or  cone  the  lines  of 

intersection  may  be  straight  or 
curved  (Figs.  288  and  289).  If 
the  plane  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  axis  a  right  section  is  cut  as 
shown  by  the  horizontal  planes 
which  intersect  the  cylinder  and 
cone  in  circles.  If  the  plane 
passes  through  the  axis  it  inter- 


of  /nf&rsecf/on 


F/g.  2  06 


sects  the  cylinder  in  a  straight  line  parallel  to  the  axis  called  an 
element.  In  like  manner  an  element  may  be  cut  from  the  cone. 
Note  that  all  the  elements  of  a  cylinder  are  parallel,  and  that  all 
the  elements  of  a  cone  pass  through  the  apex. 

Intersecting  planes,  elements,  and  cut  sections  are  the  basis 
for  finding  lines  of  intersection  of  surfaces. 

117 


118 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Intersection  of  a  Vertical  Prism  and  a  Horizontal  Prism. — 
Fig.  290  shows  a  square  prism  intersecting  a  triangular  prism. 
Two  methods  of  solution  may  be  used.  First  method:  Examine 
the  three  views,  then  note  that  the  top  view  shows  where  the 


r/g  £87 


Fig.  286 


Fig.  289 


edge  AB  of  the  square  prism  pierces  the  front  face  of  the  tri- 
angular prism  at  point  BH.  The  front  and  side  views  of  this 
point  may  be  obtained  by  projection  and  are  shown  at  Bv  and  B*. 
Note  that  the  front  view  shows  the  intersection  of  the  edge  EF 

of  the  square  prism 
with  a  vertical  edge  of 
the  triangular  prism. 
Project  to  the  other 
views.  Join  the  points 
thus  found  which  will 
determine  the  projec- 
tions of  a  line  of  in- 
tersection between  the 
two  prisms.  Second 
method:  Imagine  a 
vertical  plane  to  be 
through  the 


edge  AB.     This  plane 
f/ff.  290  win  intersect  the  face 

of  the  triangular  prism  in  a  vertical  line  xy  shown  in  the  front 
view.  Since  the  lines  xy  and  AB  are  in  the  same  plane,  the 
point  in  which  they  cross  will  show  in  the  front  view  at  Bv.  By 
passing  similar  planes  through  each  of  the  edges  the  other  points 
may  be  found. 

Intersection  of  a  Vertical  Prism  and  an  Inclined  Prism  — 
Visibility  of  Points.  —  The  intersection  of  two  prisms,  one  of 


INTERSECTIONS 


119 


which  is  inclined,  is  shown  in  Fig.  291.  Either  of  the  methods 
just  described  may  be  used,  but  the  second  method  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. A  cutting  plane  must  be 
passed  through  each  edge  of  both 
prisms  within  the  limits  of  the  curve 
of  intersection.  This  means  all  of 
the  edges  of  either  prism  through 
which  a  plane  may  be  passed  that 
will  cut  the  other  prism.  A  plane 
passed  through  the  front  edge  of 
the  vertical  prism  would  not  cut 
the  inclined  prism,  and  so  would 
not  locate  any  points  on  the  line 
of  intersection.  A  vertical  plane 
through  line  AB  will  intersect  the 
front  face  of  the  rectangular  prism 
in  line  CVDV.  The  point  in  which  /?"  ^ 

these  lines  cross   is   shown   in   the 

front  view  at  Bv.     Since  both  lines  are  on  visible  faces  of  the 
prisms  the  two  lines  are  visible  and  the  point  Bv  is  visible.     Lines 


Fjff. 


of  intersection  in  order  to  be  visible  must  join  two  visible  points 
determined  as  stated.  A  vertical  plane  through  the  edge  EF 
will  intersect  the  inclined  prism  in  two  lines  parallel  to  the  inclined 


120 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


edges  as  shown.  Each  of  these  inclined  lines  intersects  the  edge 
EF  so  that  the  two  points  G  and  H  are  located.  The  edge  EF 
would  be  visible  if  the  inclined  prism  was  not  in  front  of  it.  The 
two  inclined  lines,  however,  are  on  the  back  or  invisible  faces  of 
the  inclined  prism  and  so  are  invisible.  The  points  G  and  H  are 
therefore  invisible.  A  line  joining 
two  invisible  points  or  one  visible 
and  one  invisible  point  is  invisible. 
Lines  which  are  visible  in  one  view 
may  or  may  not  be  invisible  in 
another,  and  should  be  considered 
separately. 

Intersecting  Cylinders.  —  Two  in- 
tersecting cylinders  are  shown  in  Fig. 
292.  Divide  the  small  cylinder  into 
equal  parts  and  then  pass  planes 
which  will  cut  elements  from  both 
cylinders.  The  planes  w,  x,  y,  and  z 
cut  elements  1,  2,  3,  and  4  from  the 
cylinders.  The  points  in  which  ele- 


Flg.  293 


ments  in  the  same  plane  cross  are  shown  in  the  front  view  at 
points  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  thus  determining  the  curve  of  intersection. 
Use  as  many  planes  as  are  necessary  to  obtain  a  smooth  curve. 


Be  sure  to  pass  planes  through  the  contour  or  outside  elements 
of  both  cylinders  in  order  to  obtain  the  extreme  limits  of  the 
curve.  This  is  very  important,  especially  when  the  axes  of  the 
cylinders  do  not  intersect. 

Choice  of  Cutting  Planes.  —  Whenever  possible  planes  should 
be  passed  so  as  to  cut  straight  lines  from  both  surfaces.  The 
lines  (not  parallel)  on  the  same  plane  intersect  in  points  which 
are  common  to  both  surfaces  and  are  therefore  points  in  the 
curve  of  intersection.  The  intersection  between  surfaces  can 
very  often  be  found  by  horizontal  cutting  planes,  as  indicated 


INTERSECTIONS 


121 


in  Fig.  293,  which  would  be  employed  for  the  cases  presented  in 
Fig.  294  and  similar  conditions.  Considering  Fig.  293  it  will  be 
observed  that  horizontal  cutting  planes  are  used.  Each  plane 
cuts  a  straight  line  from  the  prism  and  a  circle  from  the  cone, 


Fig.  295 

as  shown  in  the  top  view.  Where  the  line  and  the  circle  cross  is 
a  point  common  to  the  prism  and  the  cone.  Other  points  found 
in  the  same  way  will  complete  the  curve  of  intersection. 

Connecting  Rod  Intersection.  —  Fig.  295  shows  a  portion  of  a 
connecting  rod  of  circular  cross  section  with  a  rectangular  end. 


122  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

The  circular  section  is  increased  where  it  joins  the  rectangular 
portion.  The  curves  of  intersection  are  found  as  described. 
Notice  that  the  centers  for  the  radii  RiRi  are  in  the  same  per- 
pendicular line.  DI  is  the  diameter  of  the  rod.  There  are  certain 
"critical  points"  and  these  will  be  mentioned  first.  Where  RI 
cuts  the  width  of  the  rectangular  part  in  the  top  view  gives  point 
ah  and  this  point  will  fall  on  the  center  line  in  the  side  view  and 
so  is  projected  to  av.  In  a  similar  manner  point  6V  may  be  pro- 
jected to  the  top  view  at  point  6h.  The  end  view  is  needed  to 
obtain  the  other  points.  With  0  as  a  center  and  the  corner 
distance  OC  as  a  radius,  draw  the  arc  CCi.  Continue  the  radius 
RI  in  the  side  view.  A  horizontal  line  through  d  will  intersect 
radius  RI  at  €2  from  which  Cv  and  Ch  may  be  projected.  The 
radius  OC  gives  the  largest  circle  which  will  touch  the  rectangular 
section  and  so  determines  one  end  of  the  curve,  as  shown.  A 
plane  passed  through  C^  or  to  left  of  point  Cv  and  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  will  give  a  rectangular  section.  A  plane  to  the  right 
of  point  C*  will  give  other  sections  which  will  be  described. 

To  determine  the  curve  in  top  view.  Two  points  b  and  c  are 
already  determined.  For  any  other  point  d  in  end  view,  draw 
an  arc  ddi,  with  od  as  a  radius.  From  d\  project  horizontally  to 
dz  and  then  as  shown  to  dh  in  the  top  view. 

To  determine  the  curve  in  the  side  view.  Two  points  a  and  c 
are  already  determined.  Take  any  point  e  in  the  end  view  and 
with  a  radius  oe  draw  arc  ee\',  project  horizontally  from  e\  to  e^. 
The  intersection  of  a  vertical  line  through  ez  with  a  horizontal 
line  through  e  will  give  point  ev,  a  point  on  the  desired  curve. 
Point  /  and  other  points  are  found  in  the  same  manner.  It  will 
be  observed  that  a  plane  through  e  and  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
would  give  the  section  indicated  by  section  lines  in  the  end  view. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
DEVELOPMENTS 

Surfaces.  —  Surfaces  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  plane 
surfaces  and  curved  surfaces.  Plane  surfaces  show  in  their  true 
size  and  shape  when  they  are  parallel  to  one  of  the  planes  of 
projection,  so  that  an  object  bounded  by  plane  surfaces  can 
have  each  of  its  faces  brought  into  contact  with  a  piece  of  paper, 
either  by  wrapping  the  paper  about  the  object  or  placing  the 


F/g.  296 


object  on  the  paper  and  then  turning  it  until  each  face  has  touched 
the  paper.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  296  where  the  paper  has  been 
cut  so  it  will  exactly  cover  the  object  when  it  is  folded  about  it. 
Such  an  outline  is  called  a  development.  A  curved  surface  does 
not  show  in  its  true  size  no  matter  how  it  is  placed  with  regard 
to  the  planes  of  projection.  Some  kinds  of  curved  surfaces 
can  be  developed  by  rolling  them  on  a  plane  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  297.  The  distance  L  is  equal  to  the  distance  around  the 
cylinder  and  the  height  H  of  course  remains  equal  to  the  length 
of  the  cylinder.  Other  surfaces,  such  as  the  surface  of  a  sphere, 
cannot  be  exactly  developed,  but  there  are  approximate  methods 
which  are  generally  accurate  enough. 

123 


124 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Development  of  a  Prism.  —  The  prism  of  Fig.  296  is  developed 
by  laying  out  in  a  straight  line  and  in  the  proper  order  the  distances 
1-4,  4~$}  3-2,  and  2-1,  which  added  together  are  equal  to  the 


Fig.  29  7 


distance  around  the  prism.     At  each  of  the  points  a  line  is  drawn 
equal  to  the  long  edge  of  the  prism  and  the  ends  joined  together. 
Then  the  two  ends  of  the  prism  are  measured  out  as  shown. 
The  development  of  the  lateral  surface  of  a  hexagonal  prism 


is  shown  in  Fig.  298.  First  lay  off  in  a  straight  line  and  in  proper 
order  the  edges  1-2,  2-3,  etc.,  all  the  way  around  the  prism  as 
shown  at  the  right.  At  points  1,2,3,  etc.,  draw  the  perpendiculars 
equal  in  length  to  the  edges  of  the  prism,  thus  obtaining  the  true 
size  and  shape  of  each  face  of  the  prism  and  in  such  order  that 


DEVELOPMENTS 


125 


they  might  be  folded  to  the  form  of  the  prism.  Note  that  a 
square  prism  intersects  the  hexagonal  prism  which  has  been  cut 
along  the  curve  of  intersection.  To  find  the  cut-out  on  the  de- 


velopment  draw  the  vertical  lines  A,  B,  and  C  on  the  faces  of  the 
hexagonal  prism  and  locate  them  on  the  development  by  measur- 
ing their  distances  from  the  edges  2  and  3.  The  points  of  inter- 


Fig.  3OO 

section  may  then  be  located  by  drawing  horizontal  lines  as  shown 
or  by  measuring  up  or  down  the  lines  on  the  front  view  of  the 
hexagonal  prism  and  measuring  the  same  distances  on  the  same 
lines  of  the  development.  The  development  of  the  top  and 


126 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


bottom  of  the  prism  may  be  obtained  from  the  top  view  and 
added  to  the  lateral  surface. 

Development  of  a  Cylinder.  —  The  development  of  a  cylinder 
was  illustrated  in  Fig.  297.  One  half  of  a  square  elbow  is  de- 
veloped in  Fig.  299.  First  divide  the  top  view  into  a  number  of 
equal  parts.  Through  each  point  draw  an  elemen  of  the  cylinder. 
By  taking  the  elements  close  enough  together  the  arcs  may  be 
considered  as  straight  lines.  The  problem  is  then  the  same  as 

developing  a  prism 
with  a  large  num- 
ber of  sides.  Lay 
off  the  distances 
between  the  ele- 
ments along  a 
straight  line.  At 
each  point  draw  the 
element  in  its  true 
length.  Through 
the  ends  of  the  elements  draw  a  smooth  curve,  very  lightly  free- 
hand, and  then  brighten  it  up  using  the  irregular  curve.  The 
lengths  of  the  elements  may  be  conveniently  found  by  drawing 
horizontal  lines  from  the  front  view  as  illustrated.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  bases  may  be  found  by  an  auxiliary  view  and  from 
the  top  view. 

Development  of  a  Pyramid.  —  The  development  of  a  pyramid 
with  a  part  cut  away  is  shown  in  Fig.  300.  Assume  the  pyramid 
to  be  complete.  There  are  six  equal  faces,  each  one  a  triangle. 
The  development  consists  in  laying  out  all  the  faces  in  their  true 
size  and  proper  order.  The  short  edges  are  shown  in  their  true 
length  in  the  top  view  as  1-2,  2-3,  etc.  The  long  edges  are  all  of 
the  same  length  and  are  equal  to  the  distance  Ov-lv  shown  in 
the  front  view.  Observe  that  0H-1H  is  horizontal  in  the  top  view. 
The  faces  may  be  constructed  in  their  true  size  by  drawing  an 
arc,  with  Oi  as  a  center  and  Ovlv  as  a  radius.  Starting  at  1\, 
space  off  the  chords  li-2i,  81-81,  etc.,  equal  to  1*-2H,  2H-3H,  etc. 
Draw  lines  0\  1\,  0\  2\,  etc.,  representing  edges  of  the  pyramid. 
Construct  the  development  of  the  base  so  that  it  may  be  folded 
into  the  proper  position.  Note  carefully  that  the  numbers  on 
the  base  will  match  the  numbers  on  the  edges  when  the  develop- 
ment is  folded  to  form  the  pyramid.  To  show  the  part  which 


DEVELOPMENTS 


127 


has  been  cut  away  measure  the  distance  0\C\  on  the  edge  0\4\ 
equal  to  the  distance  0VCV.  Measure  distances  5\Bi  and  3\Ai  on 
the  development  of  the  faces  and  of  the  base  equal  to  the  distances 
5HBH  and  3H  AH  obtained  from  the  top  view.  Join  points  AiCi 


128  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

and  BI  on  the  development  of  the  faces.  On  the  development 
of  the  base  construct  the  triangle  A\B\C\  obtaining  distances 
BiCi  and  Aid  from  the  development  of  the  faces.  The  com- 
pleted development  is  shown  by  the  heavy  lines. 

The  Development  of  a  Cone.  —  The  development  of  a  cone 
is  shown  in  Fig.  301.  Divide  the  base  into  a  number  of  parts 
and  draw  elements  of  the  cone.  By  taking  the  small  arcs  as 
straight  lines  the  solution  is  the  same  as  for  a  pyramid.  The 
surface  is  thus  considered  to  be  divided  into  a  number  of  equal 
triangles.  This  method  is  sufficiently  accurate  for  most  pur- 
poses. With  the  radius  R  draw  an  arc  of  a  circle.  On  the  arc 
space  off  the  circumference  of  the  base  of  the  cone.  The  base 
need  not  be  developed  as  it  shows  in  its  true  size  in  the  top  view. 

Development  of  a  Transition  Piece.  —  A  transition  piece  is 
shown  in  Fig.  302  connecting  a  circular  pipe  with  a  rectangular 
one.  The  development  of  such  a  piece  should  present  no  diffi- 
culties if  the  previous  figures  have  been,  carefully  studied.  Com- 
paring the  two  views  as  given  in  Fig.  303  with  the  picture  of 
Fig.  302,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  transition  piece  may  be  "broken 
up"  into  triangles  and  parts  of  cones.  The  triangles  are  AB1, 
BC5,  CD9,  and  DAW,  The  parts  of  cones  are  the  curved  surfaces 
between  the  triangles.  Consider  the  apex  of  one  cone  as  located 
at  B.  Divide  the  portion  of  the  base  1-5  into  a  number  of  parts 
and  draw  the  elements  B-l,  B-2,  B-3,  B~4,  and  B-5.  The 
triangles  thus  formed  will  approximate  the  surface  of  the  cone. 
The  lines  A  B,  BC,  etc.  show  in  their  true  length  in  the  top  view. 
The  true  length  of  the  elements  may  be  found  as  follows:  Con- 
sider a  line  to  be  dropped  from  point  B  perpendicular  to  the  base 
of  the  cone.  A  line  may  then  be  drawn  on  the  base  of  the  cone 
from  point  1  to  the  perpendicular  line,  thus  forming  a  right  triangle 
with  the  element  B-l  as  the  hypotenuse.  By  constructing  this 
right  triangle  in  its  true  size  the  true  length  of  B-l  may  be  found. 
This  has  been  done  in  Diagram  I.  The  length  of  the  perpendicular 
line  is  shown  at  BX  and  is  found  by  drawing  the  horizontal  lines 
shown.  The  base  of  the  triangle  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the 
horizontal  projection  of  B-l.  Point  1  in  Diagram  I  is  found 
by  making  x-1  equal  to  B-l .  In  the  same  way  find  the  lengths 
of  the  other  elements  by  laying  off 

x-2  equal  to  B-2 
x-3  equal  to  B-3 


DEVELOPMENTS  129 

etc.,  obtained  from  the  top  view.  Then  draw  B-2,  B-3,  etc. 
the  true  lengths  of  the  elements  which  are  used  in  the  construc- 
tion described  below.  In  the  same  manner  construct  Diagram  II 
for  the  other  cone.  Having  found  all  the  true  lengths  proceed 
as  follows:  Construct  the  triangle  AB1,  in  its  true  size.  With 
B  as  a  center  and  B2  as  a  radius,  draw  an  arc.  With  1  as  a 
center  and  a  radius  equal  to  1-2  obtained  from  the  top  view  de- 
scribe another  arc  cutting  the  first  arc.  This  will  locate  point  2. 
With  B  as  a  center  and  B-3  as  a  radius  describe  an  arc.  With 
2  as  a  center  and  a  radius  equal  to  2-3  obtained  from  the  top 
view  describe  another  arc,  thus  locating  point  3.  Proceed  until 
the  four  triangles  forming  the  conical  surface  are  properly  located, 
then  draw  a  smooth  curve  through  the  points  1,2,  3,  etc.  Con- 
struct triangle  CB5,  using  the  element^  as  a  starting  side.  Then 
develop  the  conical  surface  having  C  as  an  apex  and  5,  6,  7,  8,  9, 
as  part  of  the  base.  Construct  the  triangle  CD9  in  its  true  size. 
Since  the  piece  is  symmetrical  the  remaining  parts  are  the  same 
as  those  already  developed. 

All  kinds  of  surfaces  can  be  developed  approximately  by  divid- 
ing them  into  triangles,  then  finding  the  true  size  of  each  triangle 
and  arranging  them  in  the  proper  relation  to  each  other. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
PICTURE    DRAWING 

Isometric  Drawing.  —  By  means  of  an  isometric  projection 
three  faces  of  an  object  can  be  shown  in  a  single  view.  This  is 
possible  by  considering  the  object  to  be  placed  in  the  position  of 
a  cube  standing  on  one  corner  and  having  another  corner  exactly 


F/ff.  3O4  r/'g.  305 

in  the  center  of  the  view.     In  Fig.  304  the  cube  is  resting  upon 
point  A  in  such  a  position  that  point  B  is  located  in  the  center  of 


fig.  30  6 


Fig.  SO  7 


the  view  obtained  by  projecting  onto  a  vertical  plane.  The 
orthographic  projection  of  this  front  view  is  shown  in  Fig.  305, 
which  is  called  the  isometric  projection  of  a  cube.  In  this  view 

130 


PICTURE  DRAWING 


131 


the  line  AB  is  vertical  and  the  lines  BC  and  BD  make  angles  of 
30°  with  the  horizontal.  All  the  edges  of  the  cube  show  equal 
to  each  other  in  length.  This  length  however  is  shorter  than 


.  308 


.  309 


on  the  actual  cube.  For  drawing  purposes  the  lines  BD,  BC, 
and  BA,  etc.  are  made  the  same  length  as  on  the  actual  cube. 
The  angles  formed  by  the  three  lines  which  meet  at  point  B  are 
equal  to  120°  each.  The  three  lines  are  called  the  isometric  axes 
and  form  the  basis  for  isometric  drawing. 


Fig.  3/0.  \A 


rig.  31 1 


Isometric  and  Non-isometric  Lines.  —  All  measurements  for 
isometric  drawings  are  taken  along  or  parallel  to  the  isometric 
axes.  Lines  parallel  to  the  isometric  axes  are  called  isometric 
lines.  All  other  lines  are  non-isometric  lines  and  cannot  be 
measured  directly. 

To  make  an  Isometric  Drawing  of  the  Object  shown  in  Fig. 
306.  —  Draw  the  isometric  axes,  BC,  BA,  and  BD  (Fig.  307). 


132 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


From  B  measure  I1//7  toward  D,  1"  toward  C,  and  7/8"  toward  A. 
From  the  points  thus  located  draw  lines  parallel  to  the  isometric 
axes  and  lay  off  distances  corresponding  to  the  figures  given  in 


Fig.  3/2 

Fig.  306.    Note  that  lines  which  are  parallel  in  Fig.  306  are 
parallel  in  Fig.  307. 

To  make  an  Isometric  Drawing  of  the  Object  shown  in  Fig. 
308.  —  Draw  the  isometric  axes  (Fig.  309)  as  in  the  preceding 
case.  Locate  the  point  F  by  measuring  along  BC.  Locate 
point  E  by  measuring  along  BC  and  then  down  parallel  to  BA 


r 


as  indicated  in  the  figure.  Join  ¥  and  E.  Line  FE  is  a  non- 
isometric  line. 

In  Fig.  310  point  E  is  located  as  before.  Point  T  is  located 
by  measuring  along  BC  to  point  S  and  then  parallel  to  line  BD. 
It  is  often  convenient  to  think  of  the  object  as  being  placed  in  a 
box.  This  box  can  be  put  into  isometric  and  the  points  in  which 
the  object  touches  it  located.  Other  points  can  be  located  by 
taking  measurements  parallel  to  the  axes. 

Angles.  —  Angles  do  not  show  in  their  true  size  in  isometric 
drawings.  This  is  evident  from  an  inspection  of  Fig.  305  where 


PICTURE  DRAWING 


133 


the  angle  at  B  is  120°  and  that  at  C  is  60°  although  on  the  cube 
they  are  both  90°.  The  method  of  constructing  for  angles  is 
shown  in  Fig.  311.  First  make  the  orthographic  projection, 
then  transfer  by  taking  distances  parallel  to  the  axes,  as  H  and  L. 


Positions  of  the  Axes.  —  The  axes  may  be  placed  in  any  posi- 
tion provided  the  angles  between  them  are  kept  equal  to  120° 
as  illustrated  in  Fig.  312. 


Ffg.  317 

Construction  for  Circles.  —  When  circles  occur  they  appear  as 
ellipses  and  may  be  drawn  by  plotting  points  from  the  ortho- 
graphic projection  as  in  Fig.  313  or  by  the  more  usual  approxima- 
tion shown  in  Fig.  314,  where  the  lines  are  drawn  perpendicular 
to  the  points  of  tangency  of  the  circumscribing  square.  The 


134 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


intersections  of  these  perpendiculars  locate  the  centers  for  circular 
arcs  which  will  approximate  the  ellipse  sufficiently  close  for  most 
purposes.  In  the  figure 

TiTzTzTi  =  tangent  paints 
Ci  =  center  far  arc  TiTz  and  T3T4 
CiTi  =  radius  for  arc  TiT2  and  T3Tt 
C2  =  center  for  arc  TiT*  and  T2T3 
C2Ti  =  radius  for  arc  T^  and  T2TS 


f/g.  3/8 


The  same  construction  is  used  for  arcs  of  circles  as  shown  in 
Fig.  315. 

The  interior  of  objects  may  be  shown  by  means  of  isometric 
sectional  views,  Fig.  316  and  Fig.  317,  which  are  constructed  by 


Fig.  319 


the  methods  already  described  for  exterior  views.    As  shown,  the 
sectioned  surfaces  are  taken  on  isometric  planes. 


PICTURE   DRAWING 


135 


Oblique  Drawing.  —  Another  method  of  picture  drawing  often 
useful  is  oblique  drawing  or  projection,  in  which  the  view  is 
obtained  by  using  projection  lines  oblique  to  the  plane  upon  which 
the  object  is  to  be  represented.  In  Fig.  318  the  orthographic 
projection  of  a  cube  is  shown  and,  on  the  same  plane,  the  oblique 
projection  of  the  same  cube.  The  three  lines  which  meet  at 
point  B  are  called  oblique  axes.  Lines  BC  and  AB  are  always 
at  right  angles  but  the  line  BD  may  make  any  convenient  angle 


fig.  320 

with  the  horizontal.  It  follows  that  if  one  face  of  an  object  is 
parallel  to  the  vertical  plane,  it  will  show  in  its  true  size  and  shape. 

After  locating  the  axes  the  methods  of  construction  given  for 
isometric  drawing  apply  to  the  making  of  oblique  drawings. 
Many  examples  of  oblique  drawing  are  given  throughout  this 
book.  The  axes  may  be  located  in  a  variety  of  ways  as  shown 
in  Fig.  319. 

The  appearance  of  an  object  can  often  be  improved  by  reducing 
the  measurements  along  the  oblique  axis,  using  one  half  or  three 
fourths  of  the  full  dimension.  Measurements  on  the  two  per- 
pendicular axes  remain  unchanged.  Two  such  treatments  of 
a  cube  are  shown  in  Fig.  320.  Such  views  are  called  cabinet 
projection. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
SHADE   LINE   DRAWINGS 

Shade  Lines.  —  The  use  of  shade  lines  is  a  much  discussed 
question.  Each  drawing  has  a  purpose  and  if  that  purpose  is 
better  served  by  the  use  of  shade  lines  they  should  be  employed. 


In  many  lines  of  work  detail  drawings  are  never  shaded  and  this 
seems  to  be  the  best  practice.  Outline  drawings  or  assembly 
drawings  which  serve  partly,  at  least,  as  picture  drawings  are 
often  improved  by  shading. 

136 


SHADE  LINE  DRAWINGS 


137 


System  in  Common  Use.  —  In  the  United  States  a  conven- 
tional system  of  shading  is  generally  employed,  in  which  the 
rays  of  light  are  assumed  to  be  parallel,  to  come  from  the  upper 


f/y  324  F~,g.385  Fig  326  fig.  32  7  Fig  32  a 


Fig.  33 1  Fig.  332 

and  left  hand  corner  of  the  sheet  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and  to  lie  in 
the  plane  of  the  paper.  The  lower  and  right  hand  edges  where 
the  light  passes  over  them  are  made  heavy  lines  called  shade 
lines.  When  two  surfaces  are  in  the  same  plane  the  line  of  division 
between  them  is  not  shaded,  Fig.  321.  Circles  follow  the  same 


138 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


rules  as  shown,  where  A  is  a  hole  and  B  is  a  solid  cylinder.     In 
all  cases  the  extra  thickness  of  line  is  without  the  surface  which 


it  bounds  (C,  Fig.  321).  Most  all  conditions  of  shading  are 
illustrated  in  the  figures  given  in  this  chapter,  which  should 
be  carefully  studied. 


SHADE  LINE  DRAWINGS 


139 


Surface  Shading.  —  Various  methods  of  line  shading  on  surfaces 
are  used  to  show  the  shape  of  machine  parts.  Personal  judgment 
is  an  important  element  in  the  matter  of  successful  surface  shad- 
ing. Fig.  322  shows  a  cylinder  shaded  by  using  fine  lines  and 
varying  the  distances  between  them.  These  change  approxi- 
mately as  the  projections  of  equally  spaced  elements  of  a  cylinder. 


.  336 

Another  method  is  to  space  the  shade  lines  about  equally  but  to 
vary  the  width  of  the  lines  as  in  Fig.  323.  The  air  chambers 
(Figs.  324  to  328)  show  a  number  of  different  ways  of  shading 
conical,  spherical,  and  cylindrical  surfaces.  As  shown,  either  fine 
lines  near  together  or  varying  lines  may  be  used  with  any  of  the 
methods  illustrated. 

Shading  Screw  Threads  and  Gears.  —  On  elaborate  drawings 


Fig.  330 


r/ff.337 


it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  shade  screw  threads.  Five  ways  are 
shown  in  Figs.  329  to  332. 

When  gears  are  to  be  shown  without  drawing  in  the  teeth  the 
exterior  is  frequently  represented  by  alternating  heavy  and  fine 
lines  as  in  Figs.  333  and  334  which  show  a  pair  of  bevel  gears 
and  a  pair  of  spur  gears.  The  rest  of  the  drawing  may  or  may 
not  be  shaded.  A  pair  of  bevel  gears  are  shown  in  section  in 
Fig.  335. 

Special  Surface  Representations.  —  Other  surfaces  may  be 
represented  as  in  Figs.  336  to  338.  Three  ways  of  indicating 
a  knurled  surface  are  given  in  Fig.  336.  For  a  scraped  surface 
Fig.  337  may  be  used,  and  for  a  polished  surface,  Fig.  338. 

Patent  Office  Drawing.  —  Probably  the  most  general  use  of 
shaded  drawings  is  for  Patent  Office  work.  Such  drawings  must 


140 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


be  made  on  pure  white  paper  of  a  thickness  equal  to  two  or  three 
ply  Bristol  board,  using  black  ink.  The  outside  dimensions  of 
the  sheet  are  10  by  15  inches.  Inside  of  this  is  a  one  inch  margin. 
At  the  top  of  each  sheet  a  clear  space  of  one  and  one  quarter 
inches  must  be  left  for  a  title  which  is  printed  in  by  the  Patent 


Fig.  339 

Office.  Fig.  339  shows  the  layout  of  a  patent  drawing.  The 
fewest  number  of  lines  should  be  used;  all  dimension  and  center 
lines  should  be  left  off.  The  plane  upon  which  a  section  is  taken 
should  be  indicated.  All  parts  are  lettered  or  numbered.  As 
these  drawings  are  reproduced  by  the  photo  zinc  process,  all  lines 
must  be  absolutely  black  and  not  too  fine.  If  lines  #,re  too  close 
together  they  will  run  together  when  printed.  The  "Rules  of 
Practice "  of  the  United  States  Patent  Office  may  be  had  for  the 
asking  and  should  be  consulted  by  those  interested. 


CHAPTER  XX 
DRAWING   QUESTIONS,   PROBLEMS,  AND   STUDIES 

MOST  of  the  drawing  studies  included  in  this  chapter  can  be 
worked  in  an  11"  x  14"  space  or  in  a  division  of  the  space  as 
indicated  in  Figs.  340  to  343.  The  layout  with  dimensions  for  a 
regular  size  sheet  is  shown  in  Fig.  340.  In  some  cases  a  large 
scale  may  be  advisable  in  which  case  the  full  sheet  may  be  used. 
An  inspection  of  the  problem  will  indicate  the  proper  space  where 
it  is  not  given  in  connection  with  the  problem.  The  order  in 


. 

'- 

4j 

(-&, 

0 

TA  CK 

, 

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I 

r 

<J3 

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a 

TRIM  LINE-p 

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WORKING    SPACE 

0 

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33-BfJ  335  \ 
1  d/UJ.S  0&033U  | 

TRIM  LINC-J 

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Fig.  34  O 

which  the  problems  are  given  can  be  varied  to  suit  the  needs  of 
the  class.  The  question  of  inking  is  left  for  the  instructor  to  de- 
cide. The  author  advises  that  it  be  delayed  until  the  student 
has  attained  considerable  proficiency  in  making  pencil  drawings. 
A  variety  of  problems  is  included  to  allow  a  selection  to  be  made 
and  so  that  the  course  may  be  varied  from  year  to  year.  A 
number  of  answers  to  questions  should  be  neatly  written  or 

141 


142 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


lettered  and  numerical  problems  should  be  carefully  worked  out 
to  create  a  coordination  between  drawing  and  other  subjects, 
as  well  as  to  impress  the  student  with  the  fact  that  the  mera 
drawing  of  lines  is  not  the  aim  of  a  drawing  course.  It  is  thought 


7*/7* 



t 

#'*?' 


- 

*/<v 

(tppr-Of) 

___ 

__/ 
- 

that  such  problems  may  create  an  interest  and  stir  the  student 
with  the  ambition  to  seek  an  engineering  education. 

1.  Describe  the  proper  use  of  the  T  square. 

2.  Show  by  a  sketch  the  proper  method  of  sharpening  a  lead 
pencil. 

3.  How  are  horizontal  lines  drawn? 

4.  How  are  vertical  lines  drawn? 

5.  Show  by  sketches  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  pen,  pencil, 
and  needle  points  for  a  compass. 

6.  Draw  a  straight  line.     Draw  short  lines  crossing  this  line, 
and  23/i6//  apart.     Draw  another  short  line  crossing  the  original 
line,  and  I'/w"  from  the  last  line  drawn.     From  this  lay  off 
further  distances  of  IVs"  and  15/ie".     Add  the   four  distances 
and  check  the  total  length  by  scaling  the  line.     In  measuring  a 
line,  place  the  zero  of  the  scale  opposite  one  end  of  the  line  and 
read  the  scale  opposite  the  other  end  of  the  line. 

7.  Draw  a  straight  line.     Set  the  dividers  at  Vie"  and  step 
off  10  spaces.     Scale  the  distance  thus  found  and  check  with  the 
calculated  length. 

8.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  knee  joints  in  the  compasses? 

9.  Examine  a  drawing  material  catalog  and  list  five  tools  in 
addition  to  those  which  you  already  have,  that  you  would  consider 
convenient  for  your  work.       « 

10.  What  kinds  of  pens  are  used  for  freehand  lettering? 

11.  What  kind  of  ink  is  used? 

12.  What  is  the  slope  for  slant  letters? 

13.  In  what  direction  should  the  pen  point? 

14.  How  is  the  amount  of  ink  on  the  pen  regulated? 


QUESTIONS,   PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES         143 

15.  What  hardness  of  pencil  should  be  used  for  lettering? 

16.  How  is  the  distance  between  letters  regulated? 

17.  11"  x  14"    space.     Starting    y2"    from    top    border   line 
draw  horizontal  guide  lines  3/Y'  apart.     Use  very  light  pencil 
lines.     Make  each  capital  letter  of  Fig.  15  or  16  five  times.     Re- 
peat the  letters  which  cause  most  trouble.     Use  2  H  pencil. 

18.  5Y2"  X  7"    space.     Starting   l/2"   from    top    border   line 
draw  horizontal  guide  lines  Y8"  apart.     Make  each  of  the  lower 
case  letters  of  Fig.  15  or  16  five  times.     Height  of  letters  a,  c,  e, 
etc.  to  be  V/'.     Height  of  letter  6,  k,  etc.  to  be  3/8".     Use  2H 
pencil. 

19.  5V2"  X  1"   space.     Same   as   problem    18,    but   use   ball 
pointed  pen. 

20.  5l/z"  X  7"    space.     Starting   l/i"   from    top   border   line 
draw  horizontal  guide  lines  V/'  apart.     Make  each  capital  letter 
of  Fig.  15  or  16  five  times.     Use  2H  pencil. 

21.  5Y2"  x  7"   space.     Same   as   problem  20,   but    use   ball 
pointed  pen. 

22.  5Y2"  X  7"  space.     Starting  Y2"  from  top  of  space  draw 
horizontal  guide  lines  Y8"  apart.     Letter  the  following  words, 
using  a  2H  pencil:  HILL,  LATE,  LATHE,  BOLT,  QUENCH,  WRENCH, 

EQUIPMENT,  TOOLS,   CALIPERS 

23.  5VV  x  7     space.     Same  as  problem  22,  but  using  pen 
and  ink  as  directed. 

24.  5l/z"  X  7"  space.     Draw  horizontal  guide  lines  near  the 
middle  of  the  space  for  letters   having  l/»"  caps.     Letter  the 
following,  using  a  2H  pencil.     Use  caps  and  lower  case  of  Fig. 
15  or  16. 

"Drawing  is  the  education  of  the  eye,  it  is  more  interesting 
than  words.  It  is  the  graphic  language." 

" Mechanical  drawing  is  the  alphabet  of  the  engineer;  with- 
out this  the  workman  is  merely  a  hand,  with  it  he  indicates  the 
possession  of  a  head." 

25.  Prepare  a  title  and  material  list  for  the  step  bearing  shown 
in  Fig.  175. 

26.  Same  as  problem  24,  but  using  pen  and  ink  as  directed 
by  the  instructor. 

27.  Name  and  illustrate  three  kinds  of  triangles. 

28.  Name  and  illustrate  three  kinds  of  quadrilaterals. 

29.  What  is  a  right  angle? 


144 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


30.  In  order  that  the  sills  of  a  house  may  be  square  6  feet  has 
been  measured  off  along  one  sill  and  8  feet  along  the  other.     Nails 
are  driven  as  in  Fig.  344  at  these  points.     What  will  be  the  dis- 
tance AC  measured  along  a  steel  tape  when  the  angle  ABC  is  a 
right  angle? 

31.  A  circle  has  a  diameter  of  2  inches.    What  is  its  circum- 
ference?   Compare  this  distance  with  the  sum  of  the  sides  of  an 
inscribed  hexagon. 

32.  What  is  an  ellipse? 

33.  Can  a  true  ellipse  be  drawn  with  circular  arcs? 


34.  Space  45/s"  wide,  5l/2"  high.     Draw  a  line  215/ie"  long 
and  bisect  it.     See  Fig.  32. 

35.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  an  angle  and  bisect  it. 
See  Fig.  33. 

36.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  a  line  2lz/u"  long  and 
divide  it  into  five  equal  parts,  by  method  of  Fig.  34. 

37.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Same  as  problem  36,  but  use 
method  of  Fig.  35. 

38.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  any  angle  and  construct 
another  angle  equal  to  it.     See  Fig.  36. 

39.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Construct  a  triangle,  having 
sides  as  follows:  25/8";  SVs";   and  2".     See  Fig.  37. 

40.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Construct  an  equilateral  tri- 
angle, one  side  29/ie"  long.     See  Fig.  38. 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES         145 

41.  Space   as   for   problem   34.     Draw   an   isosceles   triangle 
having  a  base  of  27/8/r.     Sides  make  75°  with  the  base.     See 
Fig.  28. 

42.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  a  right  triangle.     Hy- 
potenuse 3l/z"  long.     One  angle  is  30°. 

43.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Mark  three  points  (+)  not  in 
a  straight  line,  and  draw  a  circle  passing  through  them.     See 
Fig.  42. 

44.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  an  arc  of  a  circle.    Radius 
2",  with  center  Va"  from  upper  and  left  hand  edges  of  space. 
Make  the  angle  AOB  (Fig.  43)  equal  to  45°.     Find  length  of  the 
arc.     Use  first  method  of  Fig.  43. 

45.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Same  as  problem  44,  but  use 
second  method  of  Fig.  43. 

46.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  a  circle  25/s"  diameter. 
Draw  a  tangent  at  any  point  on  the  circumference.     See  Fig.  44. 

47.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  an  arc  with  a  radius  of 
I1//'.     Draw  a  straight  line  intersecting  this  arc.     Draw  an  arc 
tangent  to  the  arc  and  straight  line  just  drawn,  radius  5/s".     See 
Fig.  45. 

48.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  a  hexagon  in  a  circle 
having  a  diameter  of  27/s".     See  Fig.  39. 

49.  Space   as   for   problem   34.     Draw   a  hexagon   having   a 
measurement  across  flats  (Fig.  39)  of  2y4". 

50.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  a  regular  octagon  inside 
of  a  3l/s"  square,     See  Fig.  40. 

51.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  a  regular  octagon  inside 
of  a  3l/s"  circle. 

52.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  a  right  triangle  having 
a  hypotenuse  3"  long,  and  one  side  2"  long.     Draw  a  circle  pass- 
ing through  the  points  of  the  triangle. 

53.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Draw  a  line  3l/s"  long  and 
divide  it  into  parts  proportional  to  2,  3,  and  5.     Use  a  method 
similar  to  Fig.  35. 

54.  Space   as  for   problem   34.     Use  30°  X  60°   triangle   and 
T  square  to  draw  a  regular  hexagon  measuring  37/i6"   across 
corners. 

55.  Space  as  for  problem  34.     Using  the  45°   triangle  and 
T  square  draw  a  regular  octagon  that  will  just  contain  a  circle 
SVie"  diameter. 


146 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


56.  Space  5l/z"  X  7".     Draw  an  ellipse  by  concentric  circle 
method  (Fig.  49).     Major    axis  5".     Minor  axis  2".     Find  24 
points. 

57.  Space  S1/*"  x  7".     Draw  an  ellipse  by  trammel  method 
(Fig.  50).     Major  axis  S1//'.     Minor  axis  2l/8". 

58.  Space  5i/2/r  X  7".     Draw  a  figure  having  the  appearance 
of  an  ellipse  by  circular  arcs,  Fig.  51.     AB  =  5",  CD  =  23/V'. 

59.  Space  51/2//  X  7".     Draw  a  V/'  square  in  the  center  of 
the  space.     Draw  an  involute  of  this  square. 

60.  Space  5l/z"  X  7".     Draw  a  semi-circle  having  its  center 
V/'  from  the  left  edge  of  the  space  and  31/4//  down  from  the  top 


rig. 


of  the  space.     Radius  of  circle  PA".     Draw  the  involute  of  the 
semi-circle.     See  Fig.  53. 

61.  Space  51/*"  X  7".    Draw  a  parabola,  Fig.   54.    Distance 
AF  =  7/8".     Directrix  perpendicular. 

62.  Space  5l/z"  X  7".     Draw  a  parabola,  Fig.  54.     Directrix 
horizontal.     Distance  AF  -  l/i". 

63.  Space  5l/z"  X  7".     Draw  an  equilateral  hyperbola,  Fig. 
56.     Point  P  is  1"  from  line  OG  and  2V8"  from  OH.    Make 
distances  PA,  AB,  etc.  Y4". 

64.  Space  5Y2"  X  7".     Draw  the  two  views  given  and  the 
side  view  of  the  prism,  Fig.  345. 


QUESTIONS,   PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES         147 

65.   Space  51/2//  X  7".     Draw  the  two  views  given  and  the 
top  view  of  Fig.  346. 


rig.  349 


L 


Fig.  351 


Fig.  352 


66.  Space  5l/z"  X  1" .     Draw  the  two  views  given  and  the 
top  view  of  Fig.  347. 

67.  Space  51/z"  X  7".    Draw  the  top,  front,  and  side  views 
of    a    regular    hexagonal    prism, 

Fig.  348.     Corners  of  hex  21/*". 
Height  of  prism  .V2". 

68.  Space  S1/*"   x  7".     Draw 
three  views  of  the  object  shown 
in  Fig.  349. 

69.  Space  5  '/Y'  X  1" '.     Draw 
three  views  of  the  object  shown 
in  Fig.  350. 

70.  Space  5l/2"  x  1".     Draw 
three  views  of  the  object  shown 
in  Fig.  351. 

71.  Space  S1/^"  x  7".     Draw 

three  views  of  the  object  shown  in  Fig.  352. 

72.  Space  o'/Y'  X  7".     Draw  three  views  of  the  object  shown 
in  Fig.  353. 


148 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


VI£W 

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F/g.  356 


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n'g.357 


Fig.  3 59 


F/g.  36  O 


1  ^/£ 


Fig.  36 7 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES         149 

73.  Space  5y2"  X  7".    Draw  three  views  of  the  object  shown 
in  Fig.  354. 

74.  Space  5l/t"  X  7".    Draw  three  views  of  the  object  sjiown 
in  Fig.  355. 

75.  Space   5y2"    X  7".     Draw 
three  views  of  the  object  shown 
in  Fig.  356. 

76.  Space  S1//'    x  7".    Draw 
three  views  of  the  object  shown 

in  Fig.  357.  , /. 

77.  Space  5l/2"    X   7".    Draw    -|f|— 2j \ IP- 
three  views  of  the  object  shown                   Fig.  362 
in  Fig.  358. 

78.  Space  5y2"  X  7".    Draw  three  views  of  the  object  shown 
in  Fig.  359. 


EEi 


rig.  365 


79.  Space  51/2//  X  7".     Draw  three  views  of  the  object  shown 
in  Fig.  360. 

80.  Space  5l/z"  X  7".     Draw  three  views  of  the  object  shown 
in  Fig.  361. 


150 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Draw 

object 

Draw 

object 


81.  Space5V2"x7".  Draw 
three    views    of    the     object 
shown  in  Fig.  362. 

82.  Space  5Y2"  X  7". 
three    views    of    the 
shown  in  Fig.  363. 

83.  Space  51/*"  X 1" . 
three    views    of    the 
shown  in  Fig.  364. 

84.  Space  5Va"  X  7".  Draw 
three    views    of    the    object 
shown  in  Fig.  365. 

The  drawing  of  objects  in 
other  than  their  natural  posi- 
tions furnishes  excellent  prac- 
tice in  the  study  of  projections. 
It  is  a  useful  test  of  one's  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  drawing,  and 
every  student  should  have  some  experience  with  such  problems. 
The  method  of  solution  for  such  problems  calls  for  the  loca- 
tion of  each  point  in  its  three  views  and  particular  attention  to 
relations  of  the  lines. 

Three  views  of  a  hopper  are  shown  in  Fig.  366.     When  the 
topper  is  revolved  to  30°  about  shaft  A  A,  the  front  view  will 


QUESTIONS,   PROBL 


151 


show  as  in  Fig.  367.  The  top  view  is  obtained  by  projecting 
horizontally  from  the  top  view  of  Fig.  366  and  vertically  from  the 
front  view  of  Fig.  367.  The  front  view  of  Fig.  367  is  changed 
only  in  the  position  of  the  hopper.  In  the  top  view  the  distances 
parallel  to  the  shaft  A  A  have  not  been  changed,  as  the  revolu- 
tion has  been  about  this  axis.  The  side  view  of  Fig.  367  is  then 
obtained  in  the  usual  manner  from  the  top  and  front  views. 

With  the  apparatus  in  the  position  of  Fig.  367,  it  may  be  re- 
volved about  the  shaft  BB  forward  or  backward.     In  this  case 


/=~/'g.369 


rig.  370 


Pig.  37 1 


rig.  372 


the  side  view  of  Fig.  367  will  be  unchanged  except  for  its  position 
as  shown  in  Fig.  368.  After  drawing  the  side  view  the  front 
view  may  be  drawn  by  projecting  across  from  the  side  view  and 
down  from  the  front  and  top  views  of  Fig.  367.  This  is  possible 
because  the  horizontal  distances  in  the  front  view  are  parallel  to 
the  shaft  or  axis  of  revolution.  The  top  view  is  obtained  from 
the  other  two  views  in  the  usual  way. 

85.  Space  5VY'  X  1".     Draw  three  views  of  the  hexagonal 
pyramid  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  369. 

86.  Space  5l/2"  X  1".     Draw  three  views  of  the  pyramid  of 
Problem  85  after  it  has  been  revolved  as  shown  in  Fig.  370. 

87.  Space  5l/2"  X  7".     Draw  three  views  of  the  rectangular 
prism  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  371. 


152 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


/i"  X  7".  Draw  three  views  of  the  rectangular 
prism  after  it  has  been  revolved  from  the  position  of  Fig.  371 
about  a  vertical  axis.  Top  view  is  shown  in  Fig.  372. 

89.  Space   5y2"  X  1".    Draw   three   views   and   a   complete 
auxiliary  view  of  the  square  prism  shown  in  Fig.  373,  after  it  has 
been  cut  by  plane  A-A  and  the  part  above  the  plane  removed. 

90.  Space    5y2"  X  7".    Draw    two    views    and    a    complete 
auxiliary  view  of  the  hexagonal  prism  shown  in  Fig.  374,  after  it 
has  been  cut  by  plane  A-A. 


Fig.  374 


Fig.  3  75 


Fig.  376 


91.  Space   5y2"  X  7".     Draw   the   two   views   given   and   a 
complete  auxiliary  view,  Fig.  375. 

92.  Space  51//  X  7".     Draw  the  two  views  given  and  a  com- 
plete auxiliary  view,  Fig.  376. 

93.  Space  5y2"  X  7".     Draw  a  complete  auxiliary  view,  Fig. 
377. 

94.  Space  51/2//  X  1".    Draw  a  complete  auxiliary  view,  Fig. 
378. 

95.  Space  11"  x  14".     Draw  the  two  views   shown  and  an 
auxiliary  view  of  the  foot  pedal  shown  in  Fig.  379. 

96.  Space  11"  x  14".     Complete  the  views  and  draw  an  aux- 
iliary view  of  the  molding,  Fig.  380. 

97.  Why  are  sectional  views  used? 

98.  What  is  the  relation  of  a  sectional  view  to  the  other  views? 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS  AND  STUDIES         153 


Fig.  377 


\ 


\ 


•- — 


\ 


99.  Space  S1/*"  X  7".     Draw  a  sectional  view  of  Fig.  381  on 
a  plane  through  the  axis. 

100.  Space  5l/z"  X  7".     Draw  a  sectional  view  of  Fig.  382  on 
a  plane  through  the  axis. 


154 


ESSENTIALS   OF   DRAFTING 


Fig.  360 


101.  Space  5Y2"  X  7",     Draw  a  sectional  view  of  Fig.  383  on 
a  plane  through  the  axis. 

102.  Space  5l/t"  X  7".     Draw  three  views  of  Fig.  384,  chang- 
ing the  proper  view  to  a  section  on  plane  A- A. 

103.  Space  5y2"  X  7".     Draw  two  views  of  Fig.  385,  chang- 
ing the  proper  view  to  a  section  on  plane  A-A. 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES          155 


EH 


r 



i 



h 

ng.  set 

104.  Space  o1/^"  X  7".     Draw  three  views  of  Fig.  386,  chang- 
ing the  proper  view  to  a  section  on  plane  A- A . 

105.  Space  5l/2"  x  7".     Draw  three  views  of  Fig.  387,  chang- 
ing the  proper  view  to  a  section  on  plane  A- A. 

106.  Space  11"  x  14".     Draw  three  views  of  the  slide  valve, 
Fig.  388.     The  missing  view  to  be  a  section  on  plane  A- A. 

107.  Draw  three  views  of  the  shackle,  Fig.  186. 


156 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


ig.  363 


108.  Space  11"  X  14".     Draw 
a  plan  view  and  a  sectional  ele- 
vation  for   the   elliptical    cover 
plate  shown  in  Fig.  389.     Out- 
side   dimensions   7"  x  9".     Six 
u/i6  inch   holes  for   bolts.     The 
rise  in  the  center  is  elliptical  in 
plan.     The  bolts  are  to  be  spaced 
equal    distances    apart.       Draw 
full  size. 

109.  11"  X  14"  space.     Draw 
Ffg.389\                             two  views  of  the  crank   shown 

in  Fig.  390.     This  drawing  is  excellent  as  an  inking  or  tracing 
exercise. 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES          157 

110.  Compare  briefly  wrought  iron  and  cast  iron. 

111.  What  is  cast  iron?    Name  some  of  its  properties.     Com- 
pare its  strength  in  tension  and  compression. 

112.  What  is  wrought  iron?    How  is  it  made?    Name  some  of 
its  properties. 

113.  What  is  steel?    How  is  it  made?    Name  some  of  its 
properties. 

114.  What  material  is  used  for  bolts  and  nuts? 

115.  How  is  malleable  iron  made  and  what  is  it  used  for? 

116.  Of  what  material  would  you  make  the  following  and  why? 

a.  Steam  Engine  Cylinder. 

6.  Water  Pump  Plunger. 

c.  Piston-rod. 

d.  Complicated  form  of  Lever. 

e.  Shaft. 

117.  What  is  meant  by  unit  stress?    Axial  stress?    Compres- 
sion?    Tension?     Shear? 

118.  A  tie-bar  has  a  diameter  of  7/Y'  and  supports  a  load  of 
8000  pounds.     What  is  the  unit  stress? 

119.  What  load  will  a  rectangular  tension  member  measuring 
3/s"  X  I"  carry  safely  if  it  is  made  of  wrought  iron?     (Live  load.) 

120.  A  hollow  cast  iron  cylinder  has  diameters  of  4"  and  3". 
What  safe  compressive  load  will  it  carry  if  the  load  is  steady? 

121.  Compute  the  number  of  3/4"  bolts  for  a  cylinder  head  15" 
effective   diameter.     Steam  pressure  is   150   pounds  per  square 
inch.     Allowable  working  stress  on  bolts  is  5000   pounds   per 
square  inch.     The  effective  root  area  of  a  3/Y'  bolt  is  .302  square 
inches. 

122.  A  wrought  iron  bolt  iVa"  diameter  has  a  head  I1//'  long. 
Its  effective  diameter  is  1.284.     When  a  tension  of  14000  pounds 
is  applied  to  the  bolt,  find  the  unit  stress. 

123.  What  are  some  of  the  uses  of  screw  threads? 

124.  What  advantage  has  the  acme  thread  over  the  square 
thread? 

125.  A  triple  threaded  screw  has  a  pitch  of  1/3  inch.     How  many 
turns  must  it  make  to  move  a  nut  6  inches? 

126.  Express  the  following  in  terms  of  the  diameter  of  the 
bolt;    distance  across  flats  of    hex,  thickness  of  bolt  head,  and 
thickness  of  nut. 


158 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


127.  In  what  way  does  a  bolt  head  differ  from  a  nut? 

128.  Draw  a  I"  hex  nut  across  flats  and  a  1"  square  nut  across 
corners.     Compare  them. 

129.  Space  51/z"  X  7".     Draw  one  turn  each  of  two  helices  as 
started  in  Fig.  391. 

130.  Space  5l/2"  X  7".     Draw  the  exterior  of  a  square  threaded 
screw  3"  long  which  enters  1"  into  the  section  of  a  square  threaded 
nut.     Pitch  I".     Other  dimensions  as  in  Fig.  392. 


Fig.  3  92    V//////////A  : 


BCD 

F/g.393 


H\  l\ 

\F~fg.  394\ 


131.  Space  5l/z"  X  7",    Draw  four  forms  of  screw  threads  in 
section  as  directed  by  the  instructor.     1"  pitch.     Fig.  393. 

132.  Space  S1/?"  X  1" .     Fig.   394.     At  A,   E,   and  C,   draw 
three  different  plan  views  of  threaded  holes.     At  D  and  E  draw 
two   different    representations   of   threaded   holes   in   elevation. 
At  F  draw  a  threaded  hole  in  section.     At  G,   H,  and  /,  draw 
three  conventional  representations  of  threaded  bolt  ends.     Diam- 
eter for  all  representations  to  be  1  inch. 

133.  Space  5Va"  x  7".     On  axis  A-B,  Fig.  395,  draw  a  3A" 
through  bolt,  hex  head  across  corners  and  hex  nut  across  flats. 
On  axis  C-D  draw  a  P/s"  bolt,  hex  head  across  flats  and  hex  nut 
across  corners.     Indicate  required  dimensions. 

134.  Space  5Va"  x  1" '.     On  axis  A-B,  Fig.  396,  draw  a  7/s" 
bolt,  square  head  across  corners  and  square  nut  across  flats. 


QUESTIONS,   PROBLEMS,    AND   STUDIES        159 


On  axis  C-D  draw  a  Vs"  cap  screw,  head  across  flats.     On  axis 
E-F  draw  a  7/V'  cap  screw,  head  across  corners. 

135.   Space  51/2//  X  7".     Draw  the  two  views  of  collar  and 


-*.n-f 


395 


h/Hih. 


shaft,  Fig.  397.     On  axis  A-Z?  draw  a  6/s"  set  screw,  head  across 
flats.     On  axis  C-D  draw  same  set  screw,  head  across  corners. 

136.  Space  5l/z"  X  1" •    Draw  the  gland  and  stuffing  box  of 
Fig.  398.     On  axis  A-B  draw  a  VY'  stud  and  nut.     Show  nut 
across  flats.     Make  provision 

for  the  gland  to  enter  one  half 
the  depth  of  the  stuffing  box 
when  nut  is  screwed  onto  stud. 
Show  required  dimensions. 

137.  Draw  a  plan  and  sec- 
tion for  a  double  riveted  lap 
joint   as   directed   by  the   in- 
structor. 

138.  Make  a  scale  drawing  of  two  plates  joined  together  at 
right  angles. 

139.  Space  5y2"  X  7".     Draw  sections  on  planes  X  and    Y 
and  a  development  of  the  riveted  joint  of  Fig.  399.     See  Chapter 
VIII.    Vie"  plates;   15/ie"  rivets;   pitch  27/i6";    lap  I1/*";   scale 
3"  =  1  foot. 

140.  How  many  views  should  a  drawing  contain? 


160 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


mi 


141.  What  scales  are  in  general 
use  for  working  drawings? 

142.  What   are    the  first   lines 
inked  on  a  working  drawing? 

143.  Is  true  projection  always 
used?    Explain. 

144.  Sketch    and   describe  one 
form  of  stuffing  box. 

145.  Space    11"  X  14".     Make 
a  working  drawing  showing  three 
views  of  the  slide  valve  shown  in 
Fig.  400.     One  view  may  be  a  sec- 
tion.    Completely  dimension. 

146.  Space    11"  x  14".     Make 
a  working  drawing  of  the  bearing 
cap  of  Fig.  401.    Show  three  views. 

4OQ  Completely  dimension.     One  view 

may   be   a   section.     Supply   any 
dimensions.    See  Chapter  XV  for  size  of  1/4//  pipe. 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES          161 


147.  Make  detail  working  drawings  for  the  parts  of  the  eccen- 
tric shown  in  Fig.  402.     Supply  any  missing  dimensions.     Draw- 
ing should  include  a  properly  dimensioned  bolt  and  set  screw. 
Completely  dimension  the  drawing. 

148.  Make  detail  working  drawings  for  the  parts  of  the  step 
bearing  shown  in  Fig.  175.     Scale  6"  =  1  foot.     Use  two  sheets, 
11"  x  14"  space.     Completely  dimension. 


162 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


149.  Draw  two  views  of  Fig.  403.     Each  view  should  show 
true   distances.     Completely  dimension.     Submit  a   preliminary 
sketch  to  the  instructor. 

150.  Make  a  working  drawing  for  the  piece  shown  in  Fig.  404. 
Submit  a  preliminary  sketch  to  the  instructor. 


151.  Space  5Y2"  X  7".  Make  a  detail  working  drawing  of 
the  construction  shown  in  Fig.  405,  using  one  full  view  and  such 
parts  of  other  views  as  are  necessary  to  define  its  true  shape. 


152.  Space  5Y2"  X  7".     Make  a  working  drawing  of  the  sleeve, 
Fig.  406.     One  half  view  to  be  in  section. 

153.  Make  a  working  drawing  of  the  valve  shown  in  Fig.  407. 
Show  a  proper  treatment  for  a  section  on  plane  ABC. 

154.  Draw  a  sectional  view  of  Fig.  408. 

155.  Make  a  detail  drawing  of  the  valve  body  of  Fig.  409. 
One  view  in  section. 

156.  Make  an  assembly  drawing  of  the  2"  check  valve  shown 
in  Fig.  409.     Draw  a  sectional  elevation  and  an  exterior  end  view. 
This  drawing  may  or  may  not  be  dimensioned. 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES         163 


157.  The  filling-in  piece,   Fig.   410,   is  shown  one  half  size. 
Scale  the  figure,  draw  full  size,  and  completely  dimension. 

158.  The  guide,  Fig.  411,  is  shown  one  half  size.    Scale  the 
figure,  draw  full  size,  and  completely  dimension. 


Pig.  407 


Scale  the 


Draw 


159.  The  bracket,  Fig.  412,  is  shown  one  half  size, 
figure,  draw  full  size,  and  completely  dimension. 

160.  The  flywheel,  Fig.  413,  is  shown  one  fourth  size, 
to  a  scale  of  6"  =  1  foot,  and  completely  dimension. 

161.  The  bearing,  Fig.  414,  is  shown  one  half  size.     Scale  the 
figure,  draw  full  size,  complete  the 

views,  and  completely  dimension. 

162.  Draw  a  half  end  view  and 
a  sectional  elevation  of  the  pump 
centerpiece,    Fig.    415.     Choose    a 
proper  scale  and  completely  dimen- 
sion. 

163.  Space    5l/2"  X  7".      Draw 
two  views  of  the  lever    shown  in 
Fig.  416.     Both  views  are  to  show 
the  true  size  of  the  lever. 

164.  Make    detail    drawings    of 
each  part  of  the  screw  stuffing  box 
of    Fig.    417.     Note    that    dotted 

sectioning  is  used  here  to  indicate  the  separate  pieces.  This 
method  is  sometimes  used  to  show  the  exterior  and  section  in  the 
same  view. 

165.  Make  an  assembly  working  drawing  of  the  steam  jacketed 
kettle  shown  in  Fig.  418.     Draw  a  half  top  view  and  a  sectional 


164 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES         165 


F~ig.  410 

elevation.     Such  dimensions  as  are 
not  given  are  to  be  supplied  by 
the  student.     The  required  bolts 
are   to    be   drawn   and  specified. 
The  bosses  for  the  pipe  may  be 
about  twice  the  outside  diameter 
of     the     pipe.     Com- 
pletely  dimension    the 
drawing.      The     outer 
casing  is  supported  by 
four  "feet"  shown  pic- 
torially.     The  flange  of 
the    kettle    rests  upon 
the  flange  of  the  outer 
casing,    and    is    bolted 
to  it.     Scale  I1/*"  =  1 
foot.    Space  ll"x  14". 

166.  At  what  stage 
should    the    dimension 
lines  be  put  on  a  draw- 
ing? 

167.  Make  an  assem- 
bly   working    drawing 
from  the  details  of  the 
connecting   rod   shown 
in  Fig.  419.     Draw  one 
view   in   full   and    the 
other    half    in   section 

and  half  full.     Choose  a  suitable  scale. 


~ 

1 

Six  Arms 

^ 

* 

1 

^ 

s 

\ 

V 

n 

$$ 

Fig.  4-13 


of  the  rod  may  be  broken  out. 


If  necessary  a  portion 
Supply  required  bolts  for  wedge 


166 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Fig.  414- 


block.     Submit  sketch  of  treatment  to  instructor  for  approval. 
Completely  dimension. 

168.  Make  a  drawing  for  the  steam  cylinder  shown  in  Fig.  420 
as  follows.  Sectional  elevation  on  plane  A- A;  half  top  view; 
and  section  on  plane  B-B  looking  toward  the  left.  The  three 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES         167 

views  are  to  be  properly  located  and  completely  dimensioned. 
Show  depth  of  tapped  holes.  Supply  any  necessary  dimensions 
that  are  not  given  in  the  figure.  Choose  a  suitable  scale. 

169.  Compute  the  weight  of 
the  Vee  block  shown  in  Fig.  335. 
Tabulate  all  figures. 

170.  Compute  the  weight   of 
the  cast  iron  foot  for  the  steam 
kettle,   Fig.    418.     Tabulate    all 
figures. 

171.  Compute  the  weight   of 
the  outer   casing  for    Fig.  418. 
(cast  iron).    Tabulate  all  figures. 

172.  Compute  the  weight  for  the  kettle,  Fig.  418  (cast  iron). 
Tabulate  all  figures. 

173.  Compute  the  weight  of  the  cast  iron  pulley  shown  in 
Fig.  421.     Tabulate  all  figures. 

174.  How  is  the  diameter  of  wrought  pipe  specified? 

//  Thds.  U.S.Std 

T WAVs/l/s-     \ 


Fig. 


175.  Sketch  a  2"  X  2"  x  IVY'  Tee,  and  mark  the  size  on  each 
opening. 

176.  Sketch  a  cross  section  of  a  standard  pipe  thread.     Indi- 
cate any  special  features. 

177.  Draw  two  views  of  the  piping  shown  in  Fig.  422;   one 
view  as  shown  and  the  other  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow.     Use 
a  double  line  representation.     See  Chapter  XV. 

178.  Space  7"  x  11".     Find  the  curve  of  intersection  between 
the  two  cylinders,  Fig.  423. 


168 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


•*    

-0/  —  » 
f-\ 

0 

\J 

1 

xl 

^ 

J 

'  ^1 

QUESTIONS,  STUDIES,   AND  PROBLEMS         169 

179.  Space  1"  x  11".     Find  the  curve  of  intersection  between 
the  two  cylinders,  Fig.  424. 

180.  Space   5Y2"  X  1".     Find   the   intersection   between   the 
prisms  of  Fig.  425. 

181.  Space   S1/^"  X  7".     Find   the   intersection   between   the 
two  prisms  of  Fig.  426. 


182.  Find  the  line  of  intersection  between  the  two  cylinders. 
(Fig.   294,   first  case.)     Both  diameters   I1  A".     Altitude  2Y/'. 
Axes  intersect. 

183.  Same  as  Problem  182  but  axes  l/2"  apart. 

184.  Find  the  intersection  between  two  cones  (Fig.  294,  second 
case).     Diameters  lYs"  and  altitude  23/s".     Axes  intersect. 

185.  Same  as  Problem  184  but  with  axes  l/2"  apart. 

186.  Find  the  intersection  of  a  cone  and  a  cylinder  (Fig.  294 
third  case).     Diameter  of  cone  =  lYa".     Diameter  of  cylinder 

=  I1/ 4".    Axes  intersect.     Altitude  2l/z". 

187.  Same  as  Problem  186  but  with  axes  1/2"  apart. 

188.  Find  the    intersection    of  a   cone    and  a  cylinder  (Fig. 
294,  fourth  case).     Diameter  of  cone  3".     Altitude  of  cone  3". 
Diameter  of  cylinder  1".     Axes  intersect. 

189.  Same  as  Problem  188  but  with  axes  1/2"  apart. 


170 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


190.  Space  SVa"  X  7".     Find  the  line  of  intersection  between 
the  cone  and  hexagonal  prism  of  Fig.  427. 

191.  Space  5Y2"  x  7".     Find  the  line  of  intersection  between 
the  sphere  and  hexagonal  prism  of  Fig.  428. 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES          171 


-I 


\ 


30°\ 


Fig.  4 2'' 


172 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


429 


8T  '„«*  k- 


Fig. 


192.  Find  the  line  of  intersection  between  the  cone  and  cylinder 
of  Fig.  429. 

193.  Make  a  working  drawing  of  the  joint  shown  in  Fig.  430. 
Find  curves  accurately. 

194.  Make  a  drawing  for  a  connecting  rod  end  (Fig.  295)  with 
dimensions  as  follows.     Instructor  will  assign  dimensions. 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES          173 


I.   W  =  2V2" 
II.    W  =  3" 
III.   W  = 


H  =4" 

rr          o// 
fl     =  O 


A  =  iV 

A  =  2" 
A  = 


LU. 


•H  r 


fig. 


v^j^- 


LI 


"I*     Ffg.^-32 


LJ_ 


4 

h'a1 


/A\ 


195.  Space  5Y2"  X  7".    Develop  the  lateral  surface  of  the 
rectangular  prism,  Fig.  431. 

196.  Space  5y2"  X  7".    Develop  the  lateral  surface  of  the 
hexagonal  prism,  Fig.  432. 


174 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


Fig.  439 


Fig. 


m 

/   /    <vi 


±B' 


Fig. 


197.  Space  5l/z"  x  1".     Develop  the  lateral  surface  and  the 
upper  surface  of  the  cylinder,  Fig.  433. 

198.  Space   5Y2"  x  1".     Develop   the   vertical   piece   of   the 
square  elbow,  Fig.  434. 

199.  Space  5l/2"  X  7".     Develop  the  lateral  surface  of  the 
pyramid,  Fig.  435. 

200.  Space  5l/2"  x  7".    Develop  the  lateral  surface  of  the 
frustum  of  a  pyramid,  Fig.  436. 


QUESTIONS,   PROBLEMS,   AND  STUDIES         175 

201.  Space  5l/z"  X  7".     Develop  the  lateral  surface  and  the 
cut  face  of  the  hexagonal  pyramid,  Fig.  437. 

202.  Space   &/*"  X  1" .    Develop  the  lateral  surface  of  the 
pyramid,  Fig.  438. 

203.  Find  the  area  in  square  feet  of  the  surface  of  the  tent, 

Fig.  439. 

Width  Length  Height 

Size  in  in  in 

Feet  Feet  Feet 

1777 
II  9  12  71/* 

204.  Find  the  area  in  square  feet  of  the  surface  of  the  tent,  Fig. 
440. 

-  Hf|tot     W    5Sf    ® 

13  777 

II  3V2  16  12  71/* 

III  4  20  14  9 

IV  5  24  16  11 

205.  Find  the  area  in  square  feet  of  the  surface  of  the  tent, 
Fig.  441. 

Size          I  7  feet  square  7  feet  high 

II  9      "  8     " 

206.  Find  the  area  in  square  feet  of  the  surface  of  the  tent, 
Fig.  442. 

Size 


Size  of 

Size  of 

Height     Height 

Base 

Top 

at  Center  at  Side 

Feet 

Feet 

Feet         Feet 

7  square 

2l/z  square 

7i/z     6 

8 

3 

8            6l/2 

I 
II 

III          10         "  3Y2        "  9  7V» 

207.  Space  5l/2"  x  7".     Develop  the  circular  cone  shown  in 
Fig.  443.     Start  with  element  A  B. 

208.  Space  5l/z"  X  7".    Develop  the  part  of  the  surface  of 
cone  above  the  plane  CD,  Fig.  444.     Start  with  element  A  B. 

209.  Develop  the  portion  of  a  conical  surface  shown  in  Fig. 
445.     First  lay  out  the  true  length  triangles.     Then  start  with 
element  A  B. 

210.  Develop  the  transition  piece  of  Fig.  446. 

211.  Develop  the  transition  piece  of  Fig.  447. 


176 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


One  ha/f '  c/ere/opment 


r 


Pig. 


212.  Find  the  intersection  of  the  two  cylinders  in  the  three 
views,  Fig.  448.     Develop  each  of  the  cylinders. 

213.  Space  572"  X  7".     Make  an  isometric    drawing  of  the 
brass  bushing  shown  in  Fig.  175,  in  section.     Full  size. 

214.  Space   11"  X  14".     Make  an  isometric  drawing  of  the 
main  casting  of  Fig.  175,  in  section.     Full  size. 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,   AND  STUDIES         177 

215.  Make  an  isometric  drawing  of  Fig.  195.     Dimensions  as 
furnished  by  the  instructor. 

A  =  [  ]  D*  =  [  ]  A  =  [  ]  A  =  [  ]  A  =  [  ]  D,  =  [  ] 
Li  -  [  ]  Lz  =  [  ]  L3  =  [  ]  L4  =  [  ]  L5  =  [  ]  L6  =  [  ]. 

216.  Space  5V2"  x  7".     Make  an  isometric  section  of  a  [    ] 
diameter  rivet  and  part  of  two  plates  each  [    ]  inches,  thick. 


Dimensions  will  be  furnished  by  instructor.     For  forms  of  rivets 
see  Figs.  133,  134,  and  135. 

217.  Space  S1/^"  X  7".     Make  an  isometric  drawing  of  the 
object  shown  in  Fig.  152.     Scale  6"  =  1  foot. 

218.  Space  5l/2"  X  7".     Make  a  cabinet  projection  from  Fig. 
152.     Scale  6"  =  1  foot, 

219.  Space    5Y2"  X  7".     For    scale    of    6"  =  1    foot.     Space 
11"  x  14"  for  full  size.     Make  an  isometric  drawing  of  the  bear- 
ing cap  shown  in  Fig.  174. 

220.  Space  bl/z"  X  7".     Make  an  isometric  drawing  of  Fig. 
275.     Scale  6"  =  1  foot. 

221.  Space   5l/z"  X  7".     Make   an   oblique   drawing   of   Fig. 
275.     Scale  6"  =  1  foot. 

222.  Make  an  oblique  drawing  of  Fig.  273. 

223.  Make  an  oblique  drawing  in  section  of  Fig.  276.     Outside 
diameter  =  4VY'.    Width   =  1  inch. 


178 


ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 


-Knurled 


224.  Space  5l/2"  X  7".     Make  an  oblique  drawing  in  section 
of  Fig.  277.     Scale  6"  =  1  foot. 

225.  Space  51/*"  X  7".     Make  an  isometric  drawing  in  section 
of  Fig.  277. 

Shade  lines  may  be  used  on  most  any  of  the  problems  at  the 
discretion  of  the  instructor. 

226.  Where  should  the  extra  thickness  of  a  shade  line  be 
allowed  for? 

227.  About  how  wide  should  the 
shade  lines  be  compared  with  the 
fine  lines  on  a  shaded  drawing. 

228.  Make   a   drawing    of  Fig. 
449,  half  in  section,  and  half  ex- 
terior.    On  the  exterior  half  repre- 
sent the  knurled  surface. 

229.  Refer  to  Machinery,  Power, 
American  Machinist,  or  other  tech- 
nical papers  and  make  a  freehand 
copy  of  a  simple  drawing.     Give 

44-9  reference,  Paper 

Date Vol No Page 

Give  your  criticism,  favorable  and  unfavorable.  Consider  choice 
of  views;  ease  of  reading  and  clearness;  method  of  dimensioning; 
location  of  dimensions;  notes  and  other  information. 

Inking  Exercises.  —  Practice  exercises  are  sometimes  valuable 
as  a  means  of  teaching  accuracy,  and  for  inking  practice.  The 
following  problems  are  designed  for  such  purposes.  They  may 
be  inked  with  all  lines  of  uniform  weight,  or  with  fine  and  heavy 
lines  as  shown.  Sharp  pencil  lines  and  a  minimum  of  erasing 
should  be  insisted  upon.  When  inking,  no  erasures  should  be 
allowed. 

230.  Exercise  1,  Fig.  450.     Lay  out  a  4"  square.     Divide  the 
side  AC  into  12  equal  parts,  using  the  bow  spacers.     Through 
each  point  draw  horizontal  lines  using  the  T  square. 

231 .  Exercise  2,  Fig.  450.     Lay  out  a  4"  square.     Divide  CD 
into  12  equal  parts  with  the  dividers.     Draw  vertical  lines  through 
each  point  using  a  triangle  and  the  T  square. 

232.  Exercise  3,  Fig.  450.     Lay  out  a  4"  square.     Divide  AC, 
CD,  and  BD  each  into  6  equal  parts.     Draw  BC.    Draw  lines 
through  the  points  as  shown,  using  the  45°  triangle. 


QUESTIONS,  PROBLEMS,  AND  STUDIES         179 

233.  Exercise  4,  Fig.  450.     Lay  out  a  4"  square.     From  each 
corner  draw  lines  making  30°  and  60°  with  the  horizontal.     Use 
the  30  x  60  triangle.     Stop  the  lines  so  as  to  form  the  figure 
shown. 

234.  Exercise  5,  Fig.  450.     Lay  out  a  4"  square.     Divide  CD 
and  BD  into  6  equal  parts.     Draw  lines  from  point  C  to  each 


9  10  II 

Fig.  450 

point  on  line  BD.     Draw  Hues  from  point  B  to  each  point  on 
line  CD. 

235.  Exercise  6,  Fig.  450.     Lay  out  a  4"  square.     Divide  A  B 
and  AC  each  into  12  equal  parts.     Draw  very  light  horizontal  and 
vertical  lines  through  each  point.     Brighten  up  the  lines  so  as  to 
form  the  figure  shown. 

236.  Exercise  7,  Fig.  450.     Lay  out  a  4"  square,  a  31//'  square, 
and  a  2l/2"  square  as  shown  in  the  figure.     Join  the  middle  points 
of  the  4"  square.     Join  the  middle  points  of  the  3>l/\"  square. 
Erase  the  lines  which  are  not  required. 

237.  Exercise  8,  Fig.  450.     Lay  out  a  4"  square.     Draw  AD 
and  BC.     Divide  AD  and  BC  each  into  8  equal  parts.    Join 


180  ESSENTIALS  OF  DRAFTING 

each  point  with  the  corners  of  the  square.  When  inking  be  sure 
to  draw  toward  the  corners  and  allow  each  line  to  dry  before 
drawing  a  second  line. 

238.  Exercise  9,  Fig.  450.     Draw  horizontal  and  vertical  center 
lines.     Using  their  intersection  as  a  center  draw  a  circle  with  a 
diameter  of  4".     Divide  the  radius  into  6  equal  parts.     Through 
each  point  thus  found  draw  circles  as  indicated. 

239.  Exercise    10,    Fig.    450.     Draw   horizontal   and   vertical 
center  lines.     Draw  concentric  circles  having  diameters  as  follows: 
4",  3Y/',  2Y2",  I3/*",  and  1".     Divide  the  2Y2"  circle  into  8 
equal  parts  and  using  each  point  as  a  center  draw  small  tangent 
circles  having  a  diameter  of  3/Y'  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

240.  Exercise  11,  Fig.  450.     Lay  out  a  4"  square.     Join  the 
middle  points  of  each  side  by  lines  HF  and  EG.     Using  E,  F,  G, 
and  H  as  centers,  and  a  radius  of  2",  draw  semicircles.     Using 
same  centers,  and  a  radius  of  \l/%",  draw  circle  arcs.     Erase  lines 
not  required  to  form  the  figure. 

241.  Exercise  12,  Fig.  450.     Lay  out  a  4"  square.     Round 
the  corners  with  a  1/z"  radius.     Find  point  E,  the  center  of  the 
square.    With  E  as  a  center,  draw  a  circle  having  a  radius  of 
Ya".    With  E  as  a  center  draw  two  semicircles,  having  radii  of 
3/Y'  and  \l/z" •     Join  these  semicircles  with  small  circles  having 
a  radius  of  3/&".     Complete  the  figure  as  shown. 


INDEX 


Acme  thread,  42 
Alternate  sectioning,  76 
Angles,  13 

isometric,  132 
Angle,  to  bisect,  16 

to  copy,  16 

Approximate  ellipse,  21 
Arcs  and  straight  lines,  94 
Arcs,  tangent,  18,  19 
Arrow  heads,  77 
Assembly  drawings,  66 
A.  S.  M.  E.  sectioning,  30 
Auxiliary  views,  28 
Axes,  isometric,  133 

oblique,  135 

Bearings,  sliding,  90 
Bessemer  process,  34 
Bill  of  material,  12 
Blue  prints,  70 
Bolts  and  screws,  48 
Bolts,  U.  S.  Stardard,  48 
Butt  joints,  58 
Buttress  thread,  42 

Cabinet  projection,  135 
Calculations  of  weights  of  materials, 

107 

Calking,  59 
Cap,  nuts,  53 

screws,  53 

Castings,  weights  of,  106 
Cast  iron,  31 

properties  of,  32 
Checking  drawings,  85 
Circle,  involute  of,  22 

to  draw  through  three  points,  18 
Circle  arc,  length  of,  18 
Circles,  14 

isometric,  133 
Commercial  gothic  letters,  7 


Compasses,  use  of,  3 

Cone,  development  of,  128 

Cones,  intersection  of,  120 

Connecting  rod  intersections,  121 

Constructions,  13 

Conventional  representation  of  screw 

threads,  44 
Cross  hatching,  30 
Curves,  applications,  93 
Cut  surfaces,  representation  of,  30 
Cutting  plane,  30 
Cutting  plane,  choice  of,  120 
Cylinder,  development  of,  126 
Cylinder  head,  weight  of,  109 
Cylinders,  intersection  of,  120 

Detail  drawings,  62 

special,  63 
Development  of  cone,  128 

of  cylinder,  126 

of  prism,  124 

of  pyramid,  126 

of  transition  piece,  128 
Developments,  123 
Diagram  drawings,  68 

sketches,  104 
Dimensioning,  77 

elements  of,  78 

general  rules,  79 

shafting,  83 

small  parts,  85 

systems,  80 

tapers,  84 
Dimension  lines,  77 
Dimensions,  location  of,  81 

of  pipe  fittings,  115 

of  pipe  flanges,  116 

of  standard  pipe,  114 

purpose  of,  77 
Dividers,  use  of,  4 
Dotted  lines,  27 


181 


182 


INDEX 


Dotted  sections,  163,  167 
Drawing,  cabinet,  135 

isometric,  130 

oblique,  135 

picture,  130 

Drawing,  isometric,  130 
Drawings,  assembly,  66 

assembly  working,  66 

checking,  85 

detail,  62 

diagram,  68 

erection,  66 

how  to  make,  65 

how  to  make  isometric,  131 

outline,  66 

part  assembly,  66 

patent  office,  139 

purpose  of,  23 

shade  line,  136 

show,  68 

special  detail,  63 

working,  62 

Drilling  for  flanges,  69,  82,  95 
Drills,  87 

Elastic  limit,  37 

table,  38 

Elasticity,  modulus  of,  37 
Ellipse,  19,  20,  21 

approximate,  21 

tangent  to,  19 
Engine,  parts  of  steam,  88 
Equilateral  triangle,  17 
Erection  drawings,  66 
Estimation  of  weights,  105 

of  castings,  106 

of  f  orgings,  111 

of  Ioo33  materials,  106 
Exceptions  to  true  projection,  69 

Factor  of  safety,  37 

table  of,  39 
Fillets,  93 

Finish,  methods  of  indicating,  78,  85 
Fittings,  pipe,  112,  113 
Flange  edges,  95 
Flanged  projections,  94 


Flanges,  dimensions  of  pipe,  116 

drilling,  69,  82,  95 
Flanges  and  bolting,  95 
Forgings,  weights  of,  111 
Forms  of  letters,  8 

Gears,  shading  of,  139 
Geometry,  13 
Glands,  92 
Gray  iron,  31 

Helix,  40 

Hexagon,  to  construct,  17 

Hyperbola,  22 

Imaginary  cutting  plane,  30 
Inking,  exercises,  178 

order  of,  65 
Instruments,  drawing,  1 

measuring,  100 
Intersections,  117 

connecting  rod,  121 

cylinders,  120 

prisms,  118 

visibility  of,  119 
Invisible  surfaces,  representation  of, 

27 
Involute,  of  circle,  22 

of  triangle,  21 
Iron,  cast,  31 

malleable,  34 

wrought,  33 
Isometric  axes,  133 

drawing,  130 

drawing,  how  to  make,  131 

Joints,  butt,  58 
lap,  57 

Keys,  96 
Knuckle  thread,  41 

Lap  joints,  57 
Left-hand  screw,  41 
Lettering,  7 
Letter  spacing,  10 
Line,  to  bisect,  15 

to  divide  into  equal  parts,  16 
Line  shading,  137,  139 


INDEX 


183 


Lines,  arcs  and  straight,  94 

character  of,  5 

dotted,  27 

dimension,  77 

isometric,  131 

non-isometric,  131 

of  intersection,  117 

shade,  136 

Loads  and  stresses,  35 
Locking  devices,  54 
Lower  case  letters,  7 

Machine  construction,  87 

operations,  87 

screws,  52 
Malleable  iron,  34 
Material,  bill  of,  12 
Materials,  31 

drawing,  1 

for  sketching,  99 

piping,  112 

selection  of,  35 

weights  of,  105 
Measurements,  instruments  used  for, 

100 

Methods  of  finish,  85 
Modulus  of  elasticity,  37 

table  of,  38 
Multiple  threads,  43 

Nasmith,  James,  98 
Nuts,  cap,  53 

lock,  54 

standard,  48-50 

Oblique  drawing,  135 
Octagon,  to  construct,  18 
Open-hearth  process,  34 
Osborn  system,  61 

Parabola,  22 

Patent  office  drawings,  139 
Pen,  use  of  ruling,  4 
Pencils,  drawing,  3 
Picture  drawings,  130 
Pipe,  standard,  114 
Pipe  conventional  representation,  113 
dimensions  of,  115 


Pipe  fittings,  112,  113 

Pipe  flanges,  dimensions  of,  116 

Pipe  threads,  114 

Piping,  112 

Piping  materials,  112 

Pistons,  parts  of,  89 

Plane,  cutting,  30 

Plane  figures,  14 

Planes,  cutting,  120 

Planes  of  projection,  24 

Plunger  barrel,  weight  of,  110 

Prism,  development  of,  124 

Prisms,  intersection  of,  118 

Problems,  141 

Projection,  exceptions  to,  69 

Projections,    orthographic,   23 

rules  for,  25 

Proportions  and  forms  of  letters,  8 
Proportions  of  U.  S.  Standard  bolts, 

48-50 
Pyramid,  development  of,  126 

Questions,  problems  and  studies,  141 

Representations,  surface,  139 

Revolutions,  150 

Ribs,  sections  of,  75 

Rivet  heads,  57 

Riveting,  57,  58 

Rivet  spacing,  61 

Rolled  steel  shapes,  61 

Rounds,  93 

Ruling  pen,  use  of,  4 

Scale,  use  of,  2 
Screw,  parts  of,  41 
Screws,  right  and  left  hand,  41 
Screw    threads,     conventional    rep- 
resentation, 44 

forms  of,  41 

shading  of,  139 

strength  of,  46 

uses  of,  40 
Sections,  71 

broken,  72 

conventional,  74 


184 


INDEX 


Sections,  dotted,  163,  167 

revolved,  72 

rib,  75 

symmetrical  parts,  75 
Sectional  views,  dotted  lines  on,  75 

extra,  74 

location  of,  72 
Set  screws,  53 

holding  power,  53 
Shade  line  drawings,  136 
Shading,  line,  137 
Shafting,  dimensioning  of,  83 

nominal  diameters  of,  83 
Sharpening  pencils,  3 
Show  drawings,  68 
Sketches,  diagram,  104 
Sketches,  uses  of,  98 
Sketching,  98 

general  rules,  102 

materials  for,  99 

procedure  in,  100 

taking  measurements  for,  100 
Sliding  bearings,  90 
Small  parts,   dimensioning  of,   85 
Solids,  geometrical,  15 
Split  nut  and  square  thread,  44 
Square  thread,  42 
Standard  pipe,  114 

dimensions  of,  114 
Steam  engine,  parts  of,  88 
Steel,  34 

properties  of,  34 

rolled  shapes,  61 
Steel  plate  connections,  60 
Strength  of  screw  threads,  46 
Strength,  ultimate,  37 
Stresses,  axial,  35 

unit,  36 
Studs,  51 
Stuffing  boxes,  92 
Surfaces,  123 
Surface  shading,  139 

representations,  139 
Symmetrical  parts,  sections  of,  75 
System  of  shading,  137 

Table,  depth  of  tapped  holes,  56 


Table,  elastic  limits,  38 

factors  of  safety,  39 

moduli  of  elasticity,  38 

ultimate  strength,  38 

U.  S.  Standard  bolts,  55 

U.  S.  Standard  threads,  47 
Tangent  arcs,  18,  19 
Tangent  to  an  ellipse,  19 
Tap  bolts,  50 

Tapers,  dimensioning  of,  84 
Tapped  holes,  depth  of,  56 
Taps,  51 

Threaded  holes,  45,  51 
Threads,  pipe,  114 
Through  bolts,  50 
Titles,  10 
Tracing,  65 

Trammel  method  for  ellipse,  20 
Transition  piece,  development  of,  128 
Triangle,  to  construct,  17 

involute  of,  21 

use  of,  1 
T  square,  use  of,  1 

Ultimate  strength,  37 

table  of,  38 
Unit  strain,  37 
Unit  stresses,  formula  for,  36 
U.  S.  Standard  bolts,  48 
U.  S.  Standard  thread,  41 

table,  47 

Views,  auxiliary,  28 
required,  29 

Wear  and  pressure,  91 
Weight  of  cylinder  head,  109 

of  plunger  barrel,  110 
Weight  of  materials,  method  of  cal- 
culation, 107 
Weights  of  castings,  106 

of  forgings,  111 

of  materials,  105 
White  iron,  31 
Whitworth  thread,  42 
Working  drawings,  62 
Wrought  iron,  33 

properties  of,  33 


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Atkinson,  A.  A.     Electrical  and  Magnetic  Calculations 8vo,  *i  50 

Atkinson,  J.  J.   Friction  of  Air  in  Mines.  (Science  Series  No.  14.)  .  i6mo,  o  75 
Atkinson,  J.  J.,  and  Williams,  Jr.,  E.  H.     Gases  Met  with  in  Coal  Mines. 

(Science  Series  No.  13.) i6mo,  o  75 

Atkinson,  P.     The  Elements  of  Electric  Lighting i2mo,  i  oo 

• The  Elements  of  Dynamic  Electricity  and  Magnetism i2mo,  2  oo 

Power  Transmitted  by  Electricity i2mo,  2  oo 

Auchincloss,  W.  S.     Link  and  Valve  Motions  Simplified 8vo,  *i  50 

Austin,   E.     Single    Phase   Electric    Railways 4to,  *$  oo 

Austin  and  Cohn.    Pocketbook  of  Radiotelegraphy (In  Press.) 

Ayrton,  H.     The  Electric  Arc 8vo,  5  50 

Bacon,  F.  W.     Treatise  on  the  Richards  Steam-Engine  Indicator  .  .i2mo,  i  oo 

Bailey,  R.  D.     The  Brewers'  Analyst Svo,  *5  oo 

Baker,  A.  L.     Quaternions Svo,  *i  25 

Thick-Lens  Optics tamo,  *i  50 

Baker,  Benj.     Pressure  of  Earthwork.     (Science  Series  No.  56.)...i6mol 

Baker,  G.  S.     Ship  Form,  Resistance  and  Screw  Propulsion Svo,  *4  50 

Baker,  I.  0.     Levelling.      (Science  Series  No.  91.) i6mo,  o  75, 

Baker,  M.  N.    Potable  Water.     (Science  Series  No.  61.) i6mo,  o  75 

—  Sewerage  and  Sewage  Purification.  (Science  Series  No.  i8.).i6mo,  o  75 

Baker,  T.  T.     Telegraphic  Transmission  of  Photographs i2mo,  *i  25 

Bale,  G.  R.    Modern  Iron  Foundry  Practice.    i2mo. 

Vol.    I.     Foundry  Equipment,  Materials  Used *3  oo 

Ball,  J.   W.     Concrete   Structures  in   Railways Svo,  *2  50 

Ball,  R.  S.     Popular  Guide   to  the  Heavens '. Svo,  *5  oo 

—  Natural  Sources  of  Power.     (Westminster  Series.) .  Svo,  *2  oo 

Ball,  W.  V.     Law  Affecting  Engineers Svo,  *3  50 

Bankson,   Lloyd.    Slide   Valve   Diagrams.     (Science   Series   No.   108.) 

i6mo,  o  75 

Barham,  G.  B.    Development  of  the  Incandescent  Electric  Lamp.. Svo,  2  50 

Barker,  A.  F.  Textiles  and  Their  Manufacture.  (Westminster  Series.) Svo,  2  oo 

Barker,  A.  F.,  and  Midgley,  E.     Analysis  of  Woven  Fabrics Svo,  3  50 

Barker,  A.  H.    Graphic  Methods  of  Engine  Design i2ino,  2  oo 

• Heating  and  Ventilation 4to,  *8  oo 


4          D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Barnard,  J.  H.     The  Naval  Militiaman's  Guide i6mo,  leather  i  oo 

Barnard,  Major  J.  G.   Rotary  Motion.    (Science  Series  No.  go.)..i6mo,  o  75 

Barnes,  J.  B.     Elements   of  Military   Sketching i6mo.  *o  75 

Barrus,  G.  H.    Engine  Tests 8vo,  *4  oo 

Barwise,  S.     The  Purification  of  Sewage I2mo,  3  50 

Baterden,  J.  R.     Timber.     (Westminster  Series.) 8\o,  *2  oo 

Bates,    E.    L.,    and    Charlesworth,    F.      Practical    Mathematics    and 

Geometry i2mo, 

Part   I.    Preliminary  and  Elementary  Course *i  50 

Part  n.    Advanced  Course ..  *i  50 

Practical    Mathematics i2mo,  *     oo 

—  Practical    Geometry    and    Graphics lamo,  oo 

Batey,  J.    The  Science  of  Works  Management izmo,  *    oo 

Steam  Boilers  and  Combustion i2mo,  *    oo 

Bayonet   Training   Manual i6mo,  30 

Beadle,  C.     Chapters  on  Papermaking.     Five  Volumes i2mo,  each,  *     oo 

Beaumont,  R.     Color  in  Woven  Design 8vo,  *6  oo 

Finishing   of   Textile   Fabrics 8vo,  *$  oo 

Standard  Cloths  8vo,  *6  oo 

Beaumont,  W.  W.     The  Steam-Engine  Indicator 8vo,  2  50 

Bechhold,   H.     Colloids   in   Biology   and   Medicine.     Trans,   by   J.    G. 

Bullowa    8vo,  5  oo 

Beckwith,  A.     Pottery 8vo,  paper,  o  60 

Bedell,  F.,  and  Pierce,  C.  A.    Direct  and  Alternating  Current  Manual. 

8VO,  2    00 

Beech,  F.     Dyeing   of   Cotton  Fabrics 8vo,  5  oo 

Dyeing  of  Woolen  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  50 

Beggs,  G.  E.    Stresses  in  Railway  Girders  and  Bridges (In  Press.} 

Begtrup,  J.     The  Slide  Valve 8vo,  *2  oo 

Bender,  C.  E.    Continuous  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  26.) .  . . .  i6mo,  o  75 

Proportions  of  Pins  used  in  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  4.) 

i6mo,  o  75 

Bengough,  G.  D.    Brass.     (Metallurgy  Series.) (In  Press.) 

Bennett,  H.  G.  The  Manufacture  of  Leather 8vo,  *$  oo 

Bernthsen,    A.      A  Text  -  book  of  Organic  Chemistry.      Trans,   by  G. 

M'Gowan    i2mo,  *3  oo 

Bersch,  J.     Manufacture  of  Mineral  and  Lake  Pigments.     Trans,  by  A.  C. 

Wright    8vo,  600 

Bertin,  L.  E.     Marine  Boilers.     Trans,  by  L.  S.  Robertson 8vo,  5  oo 

Beveridge,  J.     Papermaker's  Pocket  Book i2mo,  *4  or. 

Binnie,  Sir  A.     Rainfall  Reservoirs  and  Water  Supply 8vo,  *3  oo 

Binns,  C.  F.     Manual  of  Practical  Potting 8vo,  A  oo 

The  Potter's  Craft ; i2mov  *2  oo 

Birchmore,  W.  H.     Interpretation  of  Gas  Analysis i2mo,  *i  25 

Blaine,  R.  G.    The  Calculus  and  Its  Applications i2*no,  *i  75 

Blake,  W.  H.    Brewers'  Vade  Mecum 8vo,  *4  oo 

Blanchard,  W.  M.     Laboratory  Exercises  in  General  Chemistry.  .i2mo,  i  oo 
Blasdale,  W.  C.     Quantitative   Chemical  Analysis.      (Van   Nostrand's 

Textbooks.)     i2mo,  *2  50 

Bligh,  W.  G.     The  Practical  Design  of  Irrigation  Works 8vo, 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG          5 

Bloch,  L.     Science  of  Illumination.     Trans,  by  W.  C.  Clinton 8vo,  *2  50 

Blok,    A.      Illumination    and    Artificial    Lighting i2mo,  2  oo 

Blucher,  H.     Modern  Industrial  Chemistry.     Trans,  by  J.  P.  Millington. 

bvo,  *7  50 

Blyth,  A.  W.     Foods:  Their  Composition  and  Analysis 8vo,  7  50 

—  Poisons:    Their  Effects  and  Detection 8vo,  8  50 

Bockmann,  F.     Celluloid i2mo,  *2  50 

Bodmer,  G.  R.     Hydraulic  Motors  and  Turbines i2mo,  5  oo 

Boileau,  J.  T.     Traverse  Tables 8vo,  5  oo 

Bonney,  G.  E.     The  Electro-platers'  Handbook i2mo,  i  50 

Booth,  N.     Guide  to  the  Ring-spinning  Frame i2mo,  *2  oo 

Booth,  W.  H.     Water  Softening  and  Treatment 8vo,  *2  50 

Superheaters  and  Superheating  and  Their  Control 8vo,  *i  50 

Eottcher,  A.     Cranes:    Their  Construction,  Mechanical  Equipment  and 

Working.     Trans,  by  A.  Tolhausen 4.to,  *io  oo 

Bottler,  M.     Modern  Bleaching  Agents.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter.  . .  .i2ino,  *2  50 

Bottone,  S.  R.     Magnetos  for  Automobilists I2mo,  *i  oo 

—  Electro-Motors,  How  Made  and  How  Use i2mo,  i  oo 

Boulton,  S.  B.    Preservation  of  Timber.    (Science  Series  No.  82).i6mo,  o  75 

Bourcart,   E.     Insecticides,   Fungicides   and    Weedkillers 8vo,  *6  oo 

Bourgougnon,  A.    Physical  Problems.     (Science  Series  No.  ii3.).i6mo,  o  75 
Bourry,  E.     Treatise  on  Ceramic  Industries.     Trans,  by  A.  B.  Searle. 

8vo   (In  Press.) 

Bowie,  A.  J.,  Jr.     A  Practical  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Mining 8vo,  5  oo 

Bowls,  0.    Tables  of  Common  Rocks.    (Science  Series  No.  i25.).i6mo,  o  75 

Bowser,  E.  A.     Elementary  Treatise  on  Analytic  Geometry i2mo,  i  75 

Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus .  1 2mo,  2  25 

Elementary  Treatise  on  Analytic  Mechanics i2mo,  3  oo 

Elementary  Treatise  on  Hydro-mechanics 121110,  2  50 

— —  A  Treatise  on  Roofs  and  Bridges i2mo,  *2  25 

Boycott,  G.  W.  M.     Compressed  Air  Work  and  Diving 8vo,  *4  25 

Bradford,  G      Whys  and  Wherefores  of  Navigation i2mo,  2  oo 

—  Sea  Teims  and  Phrases i2mo,  fabrikoid  (In  ifccss.) 

Bragg,  E.  M.     Marine  Engine  Design I2mo,  *2  oo 

Design  of  Marine  Engines  and  Auxiliaries 8vo,  *3  oo 

Brainard,  F.  R.     The  Sextant.     (Science  Series  No.  101.) i6mo, 

Brassey's   Naval  Annual  for   1915.     War  Edition . ...8vo,  &  oo 

Briggs,  R.,  and  Wolff,  A.  R.     Steam-Heating.     (Science  Series  No. 

68.)     i6mo,  o  75 

Bright,  C.     The  Life  Story  of  Sir  Charles  Tilso.i  Bright 8vo,  *4  50 

—  Telegraphy,  Aeronautics   and   War 8vo,  6  oo 

Brislee,  T.  J.     Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Fuel.     (Outlines  of  Indus- 
trial Chemistry.) 8vo,  *3  oo 

Broadfoot,  S.  K.     Motors:  Secondary  Batteries.     (Installation  Manuals 

SeriesJ i2mo,  *o  75 

Broughton,  H.  H.     Electric  Cranes  and  Hoists 

Brown,  G.     Healthy  Foundations.     (Science  Series  No.  80.)  . . . .  i6mo,  o  75 

Brown,  H.     Irrigation 8vo,  *5  oo 

Brown,  H.    Rubber 8vo,  *2  oo 

W.  A.     Portland   Cement  Industry 8vo,  3  oo 

Brown,    Wm.    N.      Dipping,    Burnishing,    Lacquering    and    Bronzing 

Brass  Ware    i2mo,  *i  50 

Handbook   on   Japanning i2mo,  *2  oo 


6         D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Brown,  Wm.  N.     The  Art  of  Enamelling  on  Metal i2mo,  *2  oo 

House    Decorating    and    Painting i2mo,  *2  oo 

History  of  Decorative  Art i2mo  *o  50 

Workshop   Wrinkles    8vo,  *i  oo 

Browne,  C.  L.     Fitting  and  Erecting  of  Engines 8vo,  *i  50 

Browne,  R.  E.     Water  Meters.     (Science  Series  No.  81) i6mo,  o  75 

Bruce,  E.  M.    Detection  of  Common  Food  Adulterants i2mo,  i  25 

Brunner,  R.     Manufacture  of  Lubricants,  Shoe  Polishes  and  Leather 

Dressings.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *3  50 

Buel,  R.  H.    Safety  Valves.     (Science  Series  No.  21.) i6mo,  o  75 

Bunkley,  J.  W.     Military  and  Naval  Recognition  Book i6mo,  i  oo 

Burley,  G.  W.     Lathes.     Their  Construction  and  Operation i2mo,  2  oo 

Machine  and  Fitting  Shop  Practice i2mo,  2  oo 

Testing  of  Machine  Tools lumo,  2  oo 

Burnside,   W.     Bridge    Foundations i2mo,  *2  oo 

Burstall,  F.  W.     Energy  Diagram  for  Gas.     With  Text 8vo,  i  50 

• Diagram.     Sold  separately *i  oo 

Burt,  W.  A.     Key  to  the  Solar  Compass i6mo,  leather,  2  50 

Buskett,   E.  W.     Fire   Assaying i2mo,  *i  25 

Butler,  H.  J      Motor  Bodies   and   Chassis 8vo,  *3  oo 

Byers,  H,  G,,  and  Knight,  H,  G,    Notes  on  Qualitative  Analysis 8vc,  *i  50 

•  *. 

Cain,  W.    Brief  Course  ir>  the  Calculus i2mo,  *i  75 

Elastic  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  48.) i6mo,  o  75 

Maximum  Stresses.     (Science  Series  No.  38.) i6mo,  075 

. Practical  Designing  Retaining  of  Walls.     (Science  Series  No.  3.) 

i6mo,  o  75 

• Theory    of    Steel-concrete    Arches    and    of   Vaulted     Structures. 

(Science    Series    No.    42.) i6mo,  o  75 

• Theory  of  Voussoir  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  12.) i6mo,  o  75 

Symbolic  Algebra.     (Science  Series  No.  73.) i6mo,  o  75 

Calvert,    G.    T.     The   Manufacture    of    Sulphate    of    Ammonia    and 

Crude  Ammonia   i2mo,  4  oo 

Carey,  A.  E.,  and  Oliver,  F.  W.    Tidal  Lands 8vo,  5  oo 

Carpenter,  F.  D.   Geographical  Surveying.    (Science  Series  No.  37.).i6mo, 

Carpenter,  R.  C.,  and  Diederichs,  H.     Internal  Combustion  Engines. .  8vo,  *5  oo 

Carter,  H.  A.     Ramie  (Rhea),  China  Grass i2mo,  *3  oo 

Carter,  H.  R.     Modern  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Jute  Spinning 8vo,  *3  50 

Bleaching,   Dyeing  and  Finishing  of  Fabrics 8vo,  *i  25 

Cary,  E.  R.     Solution  of  Railroad  Problems  with  the  Slide  Rule . .  i6mo,  *i  oo 

Casler,  M.  D.    Simplified  Reinforced  Concrete  Mathematics i2mo,  *i  oo 

Cathcart,  W.  L.     Machine  Design.     Part  I.  Fastenings 8vo,  *3  oo 

Cathcart,  W.  L.,  and  Chaffee,  J.  I.     Elements  of  Graphic  Statics  .  .  .8vo,  *3  oo 

' Short  Course  in  Graphics : i2mo,  i  50 

Caven,  R.  M.,  and  Lander,  G.  D.     Systematic  Inorganic  Chemistry. i2mo,  *2  oo 

Chalkley,  A.  P.     Diesel  Engines 8vo,  *4  oo 

Chalmers.  T.  W.     The  Production  and  Treatment  of  Vegetable  Oils, 

4to,  7  50 

Chambers'  Mathematical  Tables 8vo,  i  75 

Chambers,  G.  F.     Astronomy i6mo,  *i  50 

Chappel,  E.    Five  Figure  Mathematical  Tables 8vo,  *2  oo 

Charnock,    Mechanical    Technology 3vo,  *3  oo 

Charpentier,    P.     Timber 8vo,  :!  6  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  7 

Chatley,  H.     Principles  and  Designs  of  Aeroplanes.     (Science   Series 

No.    126.)    i6mo,  o  75 

How  to  Use  Water  Power i2mo,  *i  50 

—  Gyrostatic   Balancing    8vo,  *i  25 

Child,  C.  D.     Electric  Arc 8vo,  *2  oo 

Christian,    M.      Disinfection     and    Disinfectants.      Trans,    by    Chas. 

Salter     i2mo,  2  50 

Christie,  W.  W.     Boiler-waters,  Scale,  Corrosion,  Foaming 8vo,  *3  oo 

• Chimney  Design  and  Theory 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Furnace   Draft.      (Science   Series   No.    123.) .• i6mo,  o  75 

Water:  Its  Purification  and  Use  in  the  Industries 8vo,  *2  oo 

Church's  Laboratory  Guide.    Rewritten  by  Edward  Kinch 8vo,  *i  50 

Clapham,  J.  H.     Woolen  and  Worsted  Industries 8vo,  2  oo 

Clapperton,  G.     Practical  Papermaking 8vo,  2  50 

Clark,  A.  G.     Motor  Car  Engineering. 

Vol.    I.     Construction *4  oo 

Vol.  II.      Design    8vo,  *3  50 

Clark,  C.  H.    Marine  Gas  Engines.    New  Edition 2  oo 

Clark,  J.  M.     New  System  of  Laying  Out  Railway  Turnouts i2mo,  i  oo 

Clarke,  J.  W.,  and  Scott,  W.    Plumbing  Practice. 

Vol.      I.     Lead  Working  and  Plumbers'  Materials 8vo,  *4  oo 

Vol.    II.    Sanitary  Plumbing  and  Fittings (In  Press.} 

Vol.  in.     Practical  Lead  Working  on  Roofs (In  Press.) 

Clarkson,  R.  P.    Elementary  Electrical  Engineering  (In  Press.) 

Clausen-Thue,  W.     A  B   C   Universal   Commercial   Telegraphic   Code. 

Sixth  Edition (In  Press.) 

Clerk,  D.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.     Theory  of  the  Gas  Engine.     (Science  Series 

No.   62.) i6mo,  o  75 

Clevenger,  S.  R.     Treatise  on  the  Method  of  Government  Surveying. 

i6mo,    morocco,  2  50 

Ciouth,  F.     Rubber,  Gutta-Percha,  and  Balata 8vo,  *6  oo 

Cochran,  J.    Concrete  and  Reinforced  Concrete  Specifications 8vo,  *2  50 

Treatise  on  Cement  Specifications 8vo,  *i  oo 

Cocking,  W.  C.     Calculations  for  Steel-Frame  Structures i2mo,  *2  50 

Coffin,  J.  H.  C.    Navigation  and  Nautical  Astronomy 12:010,  3  oo 

Colburn,  Z.,  and  Thurston,  R.  H.     Steam  Boiler  Explosions.     (Science 

Series    No.    2.) i5mo,  o  75 

Cole,  R.  S.     Treatise  on  Photographic  Optics lamo,  i  50 

Coles-Finch,  W.     Water,  Its  Origin  and  Use 8vo,  *5  oo 

Collins,  C.  D.    Drafting  Room  Methods,  Standards  and  Forms 8vo,  2  oo 

Collins,  J.  E.    Useful  Alloys  and  Memoranda  for  Goldsmiths,  Jewelers. 

i6mo,  I  o  50 

Collins,  S.  Hoare.     Plant  Products  and  Chemical  Fertilizers 8vo,f|  3  oo 

Collis,  A.  G.     High  and  Low  Tension  Switch-Gear  Design 8vo,  *3  50 

Switchgear.      (Installation    Manuals    Series.) i2mo,  *o  50 

Colver,    E.   D.    S.      High    Explosives 8vo,  12  50 

Comstock,  D.  F.,  and  Troland,  L.  T.     The  Nature  of  Electricity  and 

Matter   8vo,  *2  oo 

Coombs,  H.  A.    Gear  Teeth.     (Science  Series  No.  120.) i6mo,  o  75 

Cooper,  W.  R.    Primary  Batteries 8vo,  *6  oo 

Copperthwaite,  W.  C.     Tunnel  Shields 4to,  *g  oo 

Corfield,  W.  H.     Dwelling  Houses.     (Science  Series  No.  50.) i6mo,  o  75 

Water  and  Water-Supply.     (Science  Series  No.  17.) i6mo,  o  75 


8          D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Cornwall,  H.  B.    Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis 8vo,  *2  50 

Cowee,  G.  A.    Practical  Safety  Methods  and  Devices 8vo,  k3  oo 

Cowell,  W.  B.     Pure  Air,  Ozone,  and  Water i2mo,  *2  50 

Craig,  J.  W.,  and  Woodward,  W.  P.     Questions  and  Answers  About 

Electrical   Apparatus izmo,   leather,  i  50 

Craig,  T.    Motion  of  a  Solid  in  a  Fuel.    (Science  Series  No.  49.)  .i6mo,  o  75 

Wave  and  Vortex  Motion.     (Science  Series  No.  43.) i6mo,  o  75 

Cramp,  W.     Continuous  Current  Machine  Design 8vo,  *2  50 

Greedy,  F.     Single  Phase  Commutator  Motors 8vo,  *2  oo 

Crehore,  A.  C.     Mystery  of  Matter  and  Energy 8vo,  i  oo 

Crocker,  F.  B.     Electric  Lighting.     Two  Volumes.     8vo. 

Vol.    I.     The  Generating  Plant 300 

Vol.  II.     Distributing  Systems  and  Lamps 

Crocker,  F.  B.,  and  Arendt,  M.     Electric  Motors 8vo,  *2  50 

Crocker,  F.  B.,  and  Wheeler,  S.  S.     The  Management  of  Electrical  Ma- 
chinery   i2mo,  *i  oo 

Crosby,  E.  U.,  Fiske,  H.  A.,  and  Forster,  H.  W.     Handbook  of  Fire 

Protection zarno,  4  oo 

Cross,  C.  F.,  Bevan,  E.  J.,  and  Sindall,  R.  W.     Wood  Pulp  and  Its  Applica- 
tions.    (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Crosskey,  L.  R.     Elementary   Perspective 8vo,  i  25 

Crosskey,  L.  R.,  and  Thaw,  J.     Advanced  Perspective 8vo,  i  50 

Culley,  J.  L.    Theory  of  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  87.) i6mo,  o  75 

Cushiag,  H.  C.,  Jr.,  and  Harrison,  N.    Central  Station  Management ...  *2  oo 

Dadourian,  H.  M.    Analytical  Mechanics I2mo,  *3  oo 

Danby,  A.     Natural  Rock  Asphalts  and  Bitumens 8vo,  *2  50 

Davenport,  C.     The  Book.      (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Davey,  N.    The  Gas  Turbine 8vo,  *4  oo 

Davies,  F.  H.     Electric  Power  and  Traction 8vo,  *2  oo 

• Foundations  and  Machinery  Fixing.     (Installation  Manual  Series.) 

i6mo,  *i  oo 

Deerr,   N.      Sugar   Cane 8vo,  9  oo 

Deite,  C.     Manual  of  Soapmaking.    Trans,  by  S.  T.  King 4to, 

De  la  Coux,  H.   The  Industrial  Uses  of  Water.  Trans,  by  A.  Morris .  8vo,  *$  oo 

Del  Mar,  W.  A.     Electric  Power  Conductors 8vo,  *2  oo 

Denny,  G.  A.    Deep-level  Mines  of  the  Rand 410,  *io  oo 

Diamond  Drilling  for  Gold *5  oo 

De  Roos,  J.  D.  C.    Linkages.     (Science  Series  No.  47.) i6mo,  o  75 

Derr,  W.  L.     Block  Signal  Operation Oblong  i2mo,  *i  50 

Maintenance-of-Way  Engineering (In  Preparation.) 

Three  Hundred  Shades  and  How  to  Mix  Them 8vo,  *g  oo 

A.     Sewer  Gases.     (Science  Series  No.  55.) i6mo,  o  75 

G.     Mill  and  Factory  Wiring.     (Installation  Manuals  Series.) 

i2mo,  *i  oo 

Dibdin,  W.  J.     Purification  of  Sewage  and  Water 8vo,  6  50 

Dichmann,  Carl.    Basic  Open-Hearth  Steel  Process i2mo,  *3  50 

Dieterich,  K.     Analysis  of  Resins,  Balsams,  and  Gum  Resins 8vo,  *3  50 

Dilworth,  E.  C.     Steel  Railway  Bridges 4to.  *4  oo 

Dinger,  Lieut.  H.  C.    Care  and  Operation  of  Naval  Machinery. ..  i2mo,  *s  oo 
Dixon,  D.  B.     Machinist's  and  Steam  Engineer's  Practical  Calculator. 

i6mo,  morocco,  i  25 


—  Maime 
Desauit,  A. 
De  \flrona, 
Devey,  R.  G 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  9 

Dommett,  W.  E.     Motor  Car  Mechanism i2mo,  *2  oo 

Dorr,  B.  F.    The  Surveyor's  Guide  and  Pocket  Table-book. 

i6mo,  morocco,  2  oo 

DYaper,  <J.  H.    Elementary  Text-book  of  Light,  Heat  and  Sound .  .  i2mo,  i  oo 

—  Heat  and  the   Principles   of   Thermo-dynamics izmo,  *2  oo 

Draper,   E.   G.     Navigating   the   Ship i2mo.  i  50 

Dron,  R.  W.     Mining  Formulas iamo,  i  oo 

Dubbel,  H.     High  Power  Gas  Engines 8vo,  *5  oo 

Dumesny,  P.,  and  Noyer,  J.     Wood  Products,  Distillates,  and  Extracts. 

8vo,  *5  oo 
Duncan,  W.  G.,  and  Penman,  D.     The  Electrical  Equipment  of  Collieries. 

8vo,  *5  oo 

Dunkley,  W.  G:   Design  of  Machine  Elements.   Two  volumes.  .8vo,each,  2  oo 
Dunstan,  A.  E.,  and  Thole,  F.  B.  T.     Textbook  of  Practical  Chemistry. 

I2mo,  *i  40 

Durham,  H.  W.     Saws 8vo  2  50 

Duthie,  A.  L.     Decorative  Glass  Processes.     (Westminster  Series.)  .8vo,  *2  oo 

Dwight,  H.  B.     Transmission  Line  Formulas 8vo,  *2  oo 

Dyke,  A.  L.   Dyke's  Automobile  and  Gasoline  Engine  Encyclopedia .  8vo,  4  oo 

Dyson,  S.  S.     Practical  Testing  of  Raw  Materials 8vo,  *5  oo 

Dyson,  S.   S.,  and  Clarkson,  S.  S.     Chemical  Works 8vo.  *g  oo 

Eccles,  W.  H.     Wireless  Telegraphy  and   Telephony i2mo,  *8  80 

Eck,  J.     Light,  Radiation  and  Illumination.     Trans,  by  Paul  Hogner, 

8vo,  *2  50 

Eddy,  H.  T.     Maximum  Stresses  under  Concentrated  Loads 8vo,  i  50 

Eddy,  L.  C.     Laboratory  Manual  of  Alternating  Currents izmo,  o  50 

Edelman,  P.  Inventions  and  Patents i2mo,  *i  50 

Edgcumbe,  K.     Industrial  Electrical  Measuring:  Instruments 8vo.  5  oo 

Edler,  R.     Switches  and  Switchsear.     Trans,  by  Ph.  Laubach. . .8vo  *4  oo 

Eissler,  M.     The  Metallurgy  of  Gold 8vo.  9  oo 

The  Metallurgy  of  Silver 8vo.  4  oo 

—  The   Metallurgy   of   Argentiferous   Lead 8vo,  6  25 

— —  A  Handbook  on  Modern  Explosives 8vo,  5  oo 

Ekin,  T.  C.     Water  Pipe  and  Sewage  Discharge  Diagrams folio,  *3  oo 

Electric  Light  Carbons,  Manufacture  of 8vo,  i  oo 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  and  Storer,  F.  H.     Compendious  Manual  of  Qualitative 

Chemical  Analysis 12010,  *i  25 

Ellis,  C.     Hydrogenation  of  Oils 8vo,  7  50 

Ultraviolet   Light,  Its   Applications   in   Chemical   Arts i2mo, 

(In  Press) 

Ellis,  G.     Modern  Technical  Drawing 8vo,  *z  oo 

Ennis,  Wm.  D.     Linseed  Oil  and  Other  Seed  Oils 8vo,  *4  oo 

Applied  Thermodynamics 8vo,  *4  50 

Flying  Machines  To-day i2mo,  *i  50 

Vapors  for  Heat  Engines i2mo,  *i  oo 

Ennen,  W.  F.  A.     Materials  Used  in  Sizing 8vo,  *2  oo 

Erwin,  M.     The  Universe  and  the  Atom i2mo,  *2  oo 

Evans,  C.  A.     Macadamized  Roads . (In  Press.) 

Ewing,  A.  J.     Magnetic  Induction  in  Iron 8vo,  *4  oo 

Fairchild,  J.  F.     Graphical  Compass  Conversion  Chart  and  Tables...  o  50 

Fairie,  J.     Notes  on  Lead  Ores. i2mo,  *o  50 

Notes  on  Pottery  Clays izmo,  *z  oo 


10        D.  V.  N  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Fairley,  W.,  and  Andre,  Geo.  J.    Ventilation  of  Coal  Mines.     (Science 

Series    No.    58.) i6mo,  075 

Fairweather,  W.  C.    Foreign  and  Colonial  Patent  Laws 8vo,  *3  oo 

Fanning,  J.  T.     Hydraulic  and  Water-supply  Engineering 8vo,  *5  oo 

Fay,  I.  W.    The  Coal-tar  Dyes 8vo,  *4  oo 

Fernbach,  R.  L.     Glue  and  Gelatine 8vo,  *3  oo 

Findlay,  A.    The  Treasures  of  Coal  Tar 12010,  2  oo 

Firth,  J.  B.    Practical  Physical  Chemistry i2mo,  i  25 

Fischer,  E.     The  Preparation  of  Organic  Compounds.     Trans,  by  R.  V. 

Stanford    i2mo,  *i  50 

Fish,  J.  C.  L.    Lettering  of  Working  Drawings Oblong  8vo,  i  oo 

Fisher,  H.  K.  C.,  and  Darby,  W.  C.     Submarine  Cable  Testing  .  . .  .8vo,  *3  50 
Fleischmann,  W.    The  Book  of  the  Dairy.     Trans,  by  C.  M.  Aikman. 

8vo,  4  50 
Fleming,  J.  A,    The  Alternate-current  Transformer.     Two  Volumes.  8vo. 

Vol.    I.     The  Induction  of  Electric  Currents *6  50 

Vol,  II.     The  Utilization  of  Induced  Currents 6  50 

Propagation  of  Electric  Currents 8vo,  *3  oo 

A  Handbook  for  the  Electrical  Laboratory  and  Testing  Room.     Two 

Volumes 8vo,  each,  *6  50 

Fleury,  P.     Preparation  and  Uses  of  White  Zinc  Paints 8vo,  *2  75 

Flynn,  P.  J.     Flow  of  Water.     (Science  Series  No.  84.) i2mo,  o  75 

-"-  Hydraulic  Tables.     (Science  Series  No.  66.) i6mo,  o  75 

Forgie,  J.     Shield   Tunneling 8vo.    (In   Press.} 

Foster,  H.  A.    Electrical  Engineers'  Pocket-book.     (Seventh  Edition.) 

i2mo,  leather,  5  oo 

Engineering  Valuation  of  Public  Utilities  and  Factories 8vo,  *3  oo 

Handbook  of  Electrical  Cost  Data 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Fowle,  F.  F.     Overhead  jTransmission  Line  Crossings i2mo,  *i  50 

The  Solution  of  Alternating  Current  Problems 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Fox,  W.  G.     Transition  Curves.      (Science  Series  No.   no.)  .  . .  .i6mo,  o  75 
Fox,  W.,  and  Thomas,  C.  W.     Practical  Course  in  Mechanical  Draw- 
ing   i2mo,  i  25 

Foye,  J.  C.    Chemical  Problems.     (Science  Series  No.  69.) i6mo,  o  75 

Handbook  of  Mineralogy.     (Science  Series  No.  86.) i6mo,  o  75 

Francis,  J.  B.    Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments 4to,  15  oo 

Franzen,  H.     Exercises  in  Gas  Analysis 12010,  *i  oo 

Freudemacher,   P.   W.     Electrical   Mining  Installations.     (Installation 

Manuals  Series.) i2mo,  *i  oo 

Friend,  J.  N.     The  Chemistry  of  Linseed  Oil i2mo,  i  oo 

Frith,  J.     Alternating  Current  Design 8vo,  *2  50 

Fritsch,  J.     Manufacture  of  Chemical  Manures.     Trans,  by  D.  Grant. 

8vo,  *s  o» 

Frye,  A.  I.     Civil  Engineers'  Pocket-book i2mo,  leather,  *$  oo 

Fuller,  G.  W.     Investigations  into  the  Purification  of  the  Ohio  River. 

4to,  *io  oo 

Furnell,  J.    Paints,  Colors,  Oils,  and  Varnishes 8vo. 

Gairdner,  J.  W.  I.    Earthwork 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Gant,  L.  W.    Elements  of  Electric  Traction 8vo,  *2  50 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAKD  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  n 

Garcia,  A.  J.  R.  V.     Spanish-English  Railway  Terms 8vo,  *4  50 

Gardner.  H.  A.     Paint  Researches,  and  Their  Practical  Applications, 

8vo,  *5  oo 
Garforth,  W.  E.     Rules  for  Recovering  Coal  Mines  after  Explosions  and 

Fires i2mo,  leather,  i  50 

Garrard,  C.  C     Electric  Switch  and  Controlling  Gear 8vo,  *6  oo 

Gaudard,  J.     Foundations.      (Science  Series  No.  34.) i6mo,  o  75 

Gear,  H.  B.,  and  Williams,  P.  F.     Electric  Central  Station  Distribution 

Systems    8vo,  *3  50 

Geerligs,  H.  C.  P.     Cane  Sugar  and  Its  Manufacture 8vo,  *6  oo 

— — Chemical  Control  in  Cane  Sugar  Factories 4to,  500 

Geikie,  J.     Structural  and  Field  Geology 8vo,  *4  oo 

Mountains.     Their   Growth,    Origin   and   Decay 8vo,  *4  oo 

—  The  Antiquity  of  Man  in  Europe 8vo,  *3  oo 

Georgi,   F.,   and  Schubert,  A.     Sheet   Metal   Working.     Trans,  by  C. 

Salter    8vo,  3  50 

Gerhard,  W.  P.     Sanitation,  Watersupply  and  Sewage  Disposal  of  Country 

Houses i2mo,  *2  oo 

Gas   Lighting.      (Science   Series   No.    in.) i6mo,  075 

Household   Wastes.      (Science    Series   No.   97.) i6mo,  075 

House  Drainage.      (Science  Series  No.  ,63.) i6mo,  075 

Sanitary  Drainage  of  Buildings.     (Science  Series  No.  93.)..i6mo,  o  75 

Gerhardi,    C.    W.    H.      Electricity    Meters.. 8vo,  *7  20 

Geschwind,   L.     Manufacture   of   Alum  and   Sulphates.     Trans,   by   C. 

Salter 8vo,  *5  oo 

Gibbings,  A.  H.     Oil  Fuel  Equipment  for  Locomotives 8vo,  *2  50 

Gibbs,  W,  E.     Lighting  by  Acetylene I2mo,  *i  50 

Gibson,  A.  H.     Hydraulics  and  Its  Application 8vo,  *5  oo 

Water  Hammer  in  Hydraulic  Pipe  Lines I2mo,  *2  oo 

Gibson,  A.  H.,  and  Ritchie,  E.  G.    Circular  Arc  Bow  Girder 4to,  *3  50 

Gilbreth,  F.  B.     Motion  Study I2mo,  *2  oo 

Primer  of  Scientific  Management izmo,  *i  oo 

Gillmore,  Gen.  Q.  A.    Roads,  Streets,  and  Pavements i2mo,  i  25 

Godfrey,  E.     Tables  for  Structural  Engineers i6mo,  leather,  *2  50 

Golding,  H.  A.     The  Theta-Phi  Diagram i2mo,  *2  oo 

Goldschmidt,  R.     Alternating  Current  Commutator  Motor 8vo,  *$  oo 

Goodchild,  W      Precious  Stones.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  00 

Goodell,    J.    M.      The    Location,    Construction    and    Maintenance    of 

Roads 8vo,  150 

Goodeve,  T.  M.     Textbook  on  the  Steam-engine I2mo,  2  oo 

Gore,  G.     Electrolytic  Separation  of  Metals. .    . .  «. 8vo,  *3  50 

Gould,  E  S.     Arithmetic  of  the  Steam-engine i2mo,  i  oo 

Calculus.     (Science  Series  No.   112.) i6mo,  075 

High   Masonry   Dams.      (Science   Series   No.   22.) i6mo,  075 

Gould,  E-  S.     Practical  Hydrostatics  and  Hydrostatic    Formulas.     (Science 

Series   No.    117.) i6mo,  o  75 


12       D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Gratacap,  L.  P.     A  Popular  Guide  to  Minerals 8vo,  *2  oo 

Gray,  J.     Electrical  Influence  Machines i2mo,  2  oo 

Marine  Boiler  Design 1 2mo,  *i  25 

Greenhill,  G.     Dynamics  of  Mechanical  Flight 8vo,  *2  50 

Gregorius,   R.     Mineral  Waxes.     Trans,   by   C.  Salter zamo,  *3  oo 

Grierson,  R.    Some  Modern  Methods  of  Ventilation 8vo,  *3  oo 

Griffiths,  A.  B.     A  Treatise  on  Manures I2mo,  3  oo 

Dental    Metallurgy    8vo,  *3  50 

Gross,  E.     Hops 8vo,  *5  oo 

Grossman,  J.     Ammonia  and  Its  Compounds i2mo,  *i  25 

Groth,  L.  A.     Welding  and  Cutting  Metals  by  Gases  or  Electricity. 

(Westminster  Series) 8vo,  *a  oo 

Grover,  F.     Modern  Gas  and   Oil   Engines 8vo,  *3  oo 

Gruner,   A.     Power-loom   Weaving 8vo,  *3  5° 

Grunsky,  C.  E.     Topographic  Stadia  Surveying i6mo,  2  oo 

Guldner,  Hugo.     Internal  Combustion  Engines.     Trans,  by  H.  Diederichs. 

4to,  *is  oo 

Gunther,  C.  0.     Integration 8vo,  *i  25 

Garden,  R.  L.     Traverse  Tables folio,  half  morocco,  *7  50 

Guy,  A.  E.     Experiments  on  the  Flexure  of  Beams 8vo,  *i  25 

Haenig,  A.     Emery  and  Emery  Industry 8vo,  *2  50 

Hainbach,  R.    Pottery  Decoration.    Trans,  by  C.  Salter i2mo,  *3  50 

Hale,  W.  J.    Calculations  of  General  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  25 

Hall,  C.  H.     Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Paint  Vehicles i2mo,  *2  oo 

Hall,  G.  L.    Elementary  Theory  of  Alternate  Current  Working. ..  .8vo, 

Hall,  R.  H.     Governors  and  Governing  Mechanism i2mo,  *2  50 

Hall,  W.  S.     Elements  of  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus 8vo,  *2  25 

Descriptive  Geometry 8vo  volume  and  a  4to  atlas,  *3  50 

Haller,  G,  F.,  and  Cunningham,  E.  T.     The  Tesla  Coil i2mo,  *i  25 

Halsey,  F.  A.     Slide  Valve  Gears I2mo,  i  50 

The  Use  of  the  Slide  Rules.     (Science  Series  No.  114.) i6mo,  o  75 

—  Worm  and  Spiral  Gearing.     (Science  Series  No.  116.) i6mo,  o  75 

Hancock,  H.     Textbook  of  Mechanics  and  Hydrostatics 8vo,  i  50 

Hancock,  W.  C.  Refractory  Materials.  (Metallurgy  Series.)   (In  Press.) 

Hardy,  E.     Elementary  Principles  of  Graphic  Statics i2mo,  *i  50 

Haring,  H.     Engineering  Law. 

Vol.  I.    Law  of  Contract 8vo,  *4  oo 

Harper,  J.  H.    Hydraulic  Tables  on  the  Flow  of  Water i6mo,  *2  oo 

Harris,  S.  M.    Practical  Topographical  Surveying (In  Press.} 

Harrison,  W.  B.     The  Mechanics'  Tool-book I2mo,  i  50 

Hart,  J.  W.     External  Plumbing  Work 8vo,  *3  50 

— .Hints    to    Plumbers    on    Joint    Wiping 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Principles    of    Hot    Water    Supply 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Sanitary  Plumbing  and  Draininge 8vo,  *3  50 

Haskins,  C.  H.     The  Galvanometer  and  Its  Uses i6mo,  i  50 

Hatt,  J.  A.  H.     The  Colorist square  ramo,  *i  50 

Hausbrand,  E.     Drying  by  Means  of  Air  and  Steam.     Trans,  by  A.  C. 

Wright    i2mo,  *2  50 

Evaporating,  Condensing  and  Cooling  Apparatus.     Trans,  by  A.  C. 

Wright    Svo,  *6  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  13 

Hausmann,  E.     Telegraph  Engineering 8vo,  *3  oo 

Hausner,  A.     Manufacture  of  Preserved  Foods  and  Sweetmeats.     Trans. 

by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson 8vo,  *3  50 

Hawkesworth,  J.     Graphical  Handbook  for  Reinforced  Concrete  Design. 

410,  *2  50 

Hay,  A.    Continuous  Current  Engineering 8vo,  *2  50 

Hayes,  H.  V.    Public  Utilities,  Their  Cost  New  and  Depreciation. .  .8vo,  *2  oo 

—  Public  Utilities,  Their  Fair  Present  Value  and  Return 8vo,  *2  oo 

Heath,  F.  H.    Chemistry  of  Photography 8vo.  (In  Press.) 

Heather,  H.  J.  S.     Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  *3  50 

Heaviside,  O.     Electromagnetic  Theory.      Vols.  I  and  II... .  .8vo,  each,  *6  °° 

Vol.  Ill 8vo,  *i.o  oo 

Heck,  R.  C.  H.    The  Steam  Engine  and  Turbine 8vo,  *3  50 

Steam-Engine  and  Other  Steam  Motors.    Two  Volumes. 

Vol.    I.     1  hermodynamics  and  the  Mechanics 8vo,  *3  50 

Vol.  II.     Form,  Construction,  and  Working 8vo,  *5  oo 

Notes  on  Elementary  Kinematics 8vo,  boards,  *i  oo 

Graphics  of  Machine  Forces 8vo,  boards,  *i  oo. 

Heermann,  P.    Dyers'  Materials.    Trans,  by  .A  C.  Wright i2mo,  *2  50 

Hellot,  Macquer  and  D'Apligny.   Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Silk  and  Cotton.  8vo,  *2  oo 

Henrici,  O.     Skeleton  Structures 8vo,  i  50 

Bering,  C^  and  Getman,  F.  H.     Standard  Tables  of  Electro-Chemical 

Equivalents    i2mo,  *2  oo 

Bering,  D.  W.    Essentials  of  Physics  for  College  Students 8vo,  *i  75 

Hering-Shaw,  A.     Domestic  Sanitation  and  Plumbing.     Two  Vols. .  .  8vo,  *s  oo 

Hering-Shaw,  A.    Elementary  Scienca 8vo,  *a  oo 

Herington,  C.  F.     Powdered  Coal  as  Fuel 8vo,  300 

Herrmann,  G.     The  Graphical  Statics  of  Mechanism.     Trans,  by  A.  P. 

Smith i2mo,  2  oo 

Herzfeld,  J.     Testing  of  Yarns  and   Textile   Fabrics 8vo. 

(New  Edition  in  Preparation.) 

Hildebrandt,  A.    Airships,  Past  and  Present 8vo, 

Hildenbrand,  B.  W.    Cable-Making.     (Science  Series  No.  32).  ..  .i6mo,  o  75 

Hilditch,  T.  P.     A  Concise  History  of  Chemistry i2mo,  *x  50 

Hill,  J.  W.    The  Purification  of  Public  Water  Supplies.    New  Edition. 

(In    Press.} 

Interpretation  of  Water  Analysis (In  Press.) 

Hill,  M.  J.  M.     The  Theory  of  Proportion 8vo,  *z  50 

Eillhouse,  P.  A.     Ship  Stability  and  Trim 8vo,  4  50 

Hiroi,  I.     Plate  Girder  Construction.     (Science  Series  No.  g5.)..T6mc,  o  75 

Statically -Indeterminate   Stresses i2mo,  *2  oo 

Hirshfeld,  C.  F.    Engineering  Thermodynamics.  (Science  Series  No.  45.) 

i6mo,  o  75 

Hoar,  A.     The  Submarine  Torpedo  Boat i2mo,  *z  oo 

Hobart,  H.  M.     Heavy  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  4  50 

Design  of  Static  Transformers i2mo,  2  oo 

Electricity 8vo,  2  oo 

Electric  Trains 8vo,  2  50 

Electric  Propulsion  of  Ships 8vo,  2  50 


14       D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Hobart,  J.  F.    Hard  Soldering,  Soft  Soldering  and  Brazing izmo,  *i  oo 

Hobbs,  W.  R.  P.    The  Arithmetic  of  Electrical  Measurements.  ..  .i2mo,  o  75 

Hoff,  J.  N.     Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulas 12010,  *i  50 

Halt,  W.     The  Distribution  of  Gas 8vo,  *8  50 

Holley,  A.  L.     Railway  Practice folio,  6  oo 

Hopkins,  N.  M.     Model  Engines  and  Small  Boats i2mo,  i  25 

Hopkinson,  J.,  Shoolbred,  J.  N.,  and  Day,  R.  E.    Dynamic  Electricity. 

(Science  Series  No.  71.) iGmo,  o  75 

Homer,  J.     Practical  Ironfounding 8vo,  *2  oo 

Gear  Cutting,  in  Theory  and  Practice 8vo,  *3  oo 

Horniman,  Roy.    How  to  Make  the  Railways  Pay  For  the  War.  . .  .8vo,  3  oo 

Houghton,  C.  E.    The  Elements  of  Mechanics  of  Materials i2mo,  *2  oo 

Hou&toun,  R.  A.    Studies  in  Light  Production i2mo,  2  oo 

Hovenden,  F.    Practical  Mathematics  for  Young  Engineers i2mo,  *i  50 

Howe,  G.     Mathematics  for  the  Practical  Man i2mo,  *i  25 

Howorth,  J.     Repairing  and  Riveting  Glass,  China  and  Earthenware. 

8vo,  paper,  *o  50 

Hoyt,  W.  E.     Chemistry  by  Experimentation 8vo,  *o  70 

Hubbard,    E.     The   Utilization   of   Wood-waste 8vo,  *2  50 

Hiibner,  J.   Bleaching  and  Dyeing  of  Vegetable  and  Fibrous  Materials. 

(Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry.) 8vo,  *5  oo 

Hudson,  0.  F.    Iron  and  Steel.    (Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry. ).8vo,  *2  oo 
Humphrey,  J.  C.  W.    Metallography  of  Strain.     (Metallurgy  Series.) 

(In  Press.) 

Humphreys,  A.  C.    The  Business  Features  of  Engineering  Practice.. 8vo.  *i  25 

Hunter,  A.    Bridge  Work 8vo.  (In  Press.) 

Hurst,  G.  H.     Handbook  of  the  Theory  of  Color 8vo,  *3  50 

Dictionary  of  Chemicals  and  Raw  Products ..8vo,  *$  oo 

Lubricating  Oils,  Fats  and  Greases 8vo,  *$  oo 

Soaps    8vo,  *6  o» 

Hurst,  G.  H.,  and  Simmons,  W.  H.    Textile  Soaps  and  Oils 8vo,  3  50 

Hurst,  H.  E.,  and  Lattey,  R.  T.    Text-book  of  Physics 8vo,  *3  oo 

Also   published  in  three  parts. 

Part      I.    Dynamics  and  Heat *i  25 

Part    II.    Sound  and  Light *i  25 

Part  III.    Magnetism  and  Electricity *i  50 

Hutchinson,  R.  W.,  Jr.    Long  Distance  Electric  Power  Transmission. 

i2mo,  *3  oo 

Hutchinson,  R.  W.,  Jr.,  and  Thomas,  W.  A.    Electricity  in  Mining.  i2m», 

(In  Press.) 
Hutchinson,  W.  B.     Patents  and  How  to  Make  Money  Out  of  Them. 

i2mo,  i  oo 

Button,  W.  S.    The  Works'  Manager's  Handbook 8vo,  6  oo 

Hyde,  E.  W.     Skew  Arches.      (Science   Series  No.   15.) iGmo,  o  75 

Hyde,  F.  S.    Solvents,  Oils,  Gums,  Waxes 8vo,  *2  oo 

Induction   Coils.      (Science   Series   No.    53.) i6mo,  075 

Ingham,  A.  E.    Gearing.    A  practical  treatise 8vo,  *2  50 

Ingle,  H.     Manual  of  Agricultural   Chemistry 8vo    (In   Press.) 


D    VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  15 

Inness,  C.  H.    Problems  in  Machine  Design izmo,  *3  oo 

Air  Compressors  and  Blowing  Engines I2mo, 

Centrifugal  Pumps  izmo,  *$  oo 

The  Fan   i2mo,  *4  oo 

Jacob,  A.,  and  Gould,  E.  S.    On  the  Designing  and  Construction  of 

Storage  Reservoirs.     (Science  Series  No.  6.) i6mo,  o  75 

Jannettaz,  E.     Guide  to  the  Determination  of  Rocks.     Trans,  by  G.  W. 

Plympton iimo,  I  50 

Jehl,  F.     Manufacture  of  Carbons 8vo,  *4  oo 

Jennings,  A.  S.     Commercial  Paints  and  Painting.    (Westminster  Series.) 

.                                                         8vo,  *4  oo 
Jennison,  F.  H.    The  Manufacture  of  Lake  Pigments.  .8vo  (/«  Press.) 

Jepson,  G.     Cams  and  the  Principles  of  their  Construction 8vo,  *i  59 

Mechanical  Drawing 8vo  (In  Preparation.) 

Jervis-Smith,   F.   J.     Dynamometers 8vo,  *3  50 

Jockin,  W.     Arithmetic  of  the  Gold  and  Silversmith i2mo,  *i  oo 

Johnson,  J.  H.     Are  Lamps  and  Accessory  Apparatus.     (Installation 

Manuals  Series.) i2mo,  *o  75 

Johnson,  T.  M.     Ship  Wiring  and  Fitting.     (Installation  Manuals  Series.) 

i2mo,  *o  75 

Johnson,  W.  McA.     The  Metallurgy  of  Nickel (In  Preparation.) 

Johnston,  J.  F.  W.,  and  Cameron,  C.     Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 

and  Geology 12010,  2  60 

Joly,  J.     Radioactivity  and  Geology i2mo,  ^3  oo 

Jones,  H.  C.    Electrical  Nature  of  Matter  and  Radioactivity i2mo,  *2  oo 

Nature  of  Solution 8vo,  *3  50 

New  Era  in  Chemistry lamo,  *2  oo 

Jones,  J.  H.    Tinplate  Industry 8vo,  *3  oo 

Jones,  M.  W.    Testing  Raw  Materials  Used  in  Paint i2mo,  *2  50 

Jordan,  L.  C.     Practical  Railway  Spiral 12 mo,  leather,  *i  50 

Joynson,  F.  H.     Designing  and  Construction  of  Machine  Gearing  .  .8vo,  2  oo 

Juptner,  H.  F.  V.    Siderclogy:  The  Science  of  Iron 8vo,  *$  oo 

Kapp,   G.    Alternate   Current   Machinery.     (Science    Series   No.   96.) 

i6mo,  o  75 

Kapper,  F.     Overhead  Transmission  Lines 4to,  ""4  oo 

Keim,  A.  W.    Prevention  of  Dampness  in  Buildings 8vo,  *2  50 

Keller,  S.  S.     Mathematics  for  Engineering  Students.     i2mo,  half  leather. 

—  and  Knox,  W.  E.    Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus *2  oo 

Kelsey,  W.  R.     Continuous-current  Dyaamos  and  Motors 8vo,  *2  50 

Kemble,  W.  T.,  and  Underbill,  C.  R.     The  Periodic  Law  and  the  Hydrogen 

Spectrum 8vo,  paper,  *o  50 

Kemp,  J.  F.     Handbook  of  Rocks 8vo,  *i  50 

Kennedy,  A.  B.  W.,  and  Thurston,  R.  H.     Kinematics  of  Machinery. 

(Science  Series   No.   54. ) i6mo,  o  75 

Kennedy,  A.  B.  W.,  Unwin,  W.  C.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.     Compressed   Air. 

(Science    Series    No.    106.) i6mo,  o  75 


16       D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Kennedy,  R.     Electrical  Installations.     Five  Volumes 4to,  1500 

Single  Volumes each,  3  50 

Flying  Machines;  Practice  and  Design i2mo,  *2  50 

Principles  of  Aeroplane  Construction 8vo,  *    oo 

Kennelly,  A.  E.     Electro-dynamic  Machinery 8vo,  50 

Kent,  W.     Strenth  of  Materials.     (Science  Series  No.  41.) i6mo,  75 

Kershaw,  J.  B.  C.     Fuel,  Water  and  Gas  Analysis 8vo,  *     50 

Electrometallurgy.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *    oo 

The  Electric  Furnace  in  Iron  and  Steel  Production i2mo, 

Electro- Thermal   Methods    of   Iron   and    Steel    Production 8vo,  *3  oo 

Kinzbrunner,  C.    Alternate  Current  Windings 8vo,  *i  50 

Continuous  Current  Armatures 8vo,  *i  50 

Testing  of  Alternating  Current  Machines 8vo,  *2  oo 

Kinzer,  H.,  and  Walter,  K.    Theory  and  Practice  of  Damask  Weaving, 

8vo,  4  oo 
Kirkaldy,    A..    W.,    and    Evans,    A.    D.      History    and    Economics    of 

Transport 8vo,  *3  oo 

Kirkaldy,  W.  G.    David  Kirkaldy's  System  of  Mechanical  Testing . .  4to,  10  oo 

Kirkbride,  J.     Engraving  for  Illustration 8vo,  *i  oo 

Kirk  wood,  J.  P.     Filtration  of  River  Waters 4to,  7  50 

Kirschke,  A.     Gas  and  Oil  Engines i2mo,  *i  50 

Klein,  JU  F     Design  of  a  High-speed  Steam-engine 8vo,  *s  oo 

Physical  Significance  of  Entropy 8vo,  *i  50 

Klingenberg,  G.     Large  Electric   Power  Stations 4to,  *$  oo 

Knight,  R.-Adm.  A.  M.     Modern  Seamanship 8vo,  *6  50 

Pocket   Edition i2mo,   f abrikoid,  3  oo 

Knott,  C.  G.,  and  Mackay,  J.  S.     Practical  Mathematics 8vo,  2  50 

Knox,  G.  D.    Spirit  of  the  Soil i2mo,  *i  25 

Knox,  J.     Physico-Chemical  Calculations i2mo,  *i  25 

Fixation  of  Atmospheric  Nitrogen.      (Chemical  Monographs.)  .12010,  *i  oo 

Koester,  F.     Steam-Electric  Power  Plants 4to,  *s  oo 

— —  Hydroelectric  Developments  and  Engineering 4to,  *5  oo 

Koller,  T.     The   Utilization   of   Waste   Products 8vo,  *s  oo 

—  Cosmetics    8vo,  *2  50 

Koppe,  S.  W.     Glycerine lamo,  *3  50 

Kozmin,  P.  A.     Flour  Milling.     Trans,  by  M.  Falkner 8vo,  7  50 

Kremann,  R.     Application  of  the   Physico-Chemical  Theory  to  Tech- 
nical  Processes    and   Manufacturing   Methods.     Trans,   by   H. 

E.   Potts 8vo,  *3  oo 

Kretchmar,  K.     Yarn  and   Warp   Sizing 8vo,  *s  oo 

Laffargue,  A.     Attack  in  Trench  Warfare i6mo,  o  50 

Lallier,  E.  V.     Elementary  Manual  of  the  Steam  Engine i2mo,  *2  oo 

Lambert,  T.     Lead  and  Its  Compounds 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Bone    Products    and    Manures 8vo,  *3  50 

Lamborn,  L.  L.     Cottonseed  Products 8vo,  *3  oo 

Modern  Soaps,  Candles,  and  Glycerin 8vo,  *7  50 

Lamprecht,  R.     Recovery  Wo.k  After  Pit  Fires.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter, 

8vo,  *5  oo 

Lancaster,  M.     Electric  Cooking,  Heating  and  Cleaning 8vo,  *i  oo 

Lanchester,  F.  W.     Aerial  Flight.     Two  Volumes.     8vo. 

Vol.  I.     Aerodynamics *6  oo 

Vol.    II.     Aerodonetics .  *6  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG        17 

Lanchester,  F.  W.    The  Flying  Machine 8vo,  *3  oo 

Industrial    Engineering:    Present   and   Post-War   Outlook ...  i  zmo,  i  oo 

Lange,  K.  R.    By-Products  of  Coal-Gas  Manufacture i2mo,  2  50 

Lamer,  E.  T.    Principles  of  Alternating  Currents lamo.  *i  25 

La  Rue,  B.  F.     Swing  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  107.) i6mo,  o  75 

Lassar-Cohn.  Dr.     Modern   Scientific   Chemistry.     Trans,   by   M.    M. 

Pattison  Muir i2mo,  *2  oo 

Latimer,  L.  H.,  Field,  C.  J.,  and  Howell,  J.  W.     Incandescent  Electric 

Lighting.      (Science   Series   No.   57.) i6mo,  o  77, 

Latta,  M.  N.     Handbook  of  American  Gas-Engineering  Practice  .  .  .8vo,  *4  50 

American  Producer  Gas  Practice 4to,  *6  oo 

Laws,  B.  C.     Stability  and  Equilibrium  of  Floating  Bodies 8vo,  *$  50 

Lawson,    W.    R.      British    Railways.      A    Financial    and    Commercial 

Survey 8vo,  2  oo 

Leask,  A.  R.    Breakdowns  at  Sea i2mo,  2  oo 

Refrigerating  Machinery 12010,  2  oo 

Lecky,  S.  T.  S.     "Wrinkles"  in  Practical  Navigation 8vo,  10  oo 

—  Pocket   Edition    i2mo,  5  oo 

Danger   Angle    i6mo,  2  50 

Le  Doux,  M.    Ice-Making  Machines.     (Science  Series  No.  46.).i6mo,  o  75 

Leeds,  C.  C.    Mechanical  Drawing  for  Trade  Schools oblong  4to,  *2  oo 

Mechanical  Drawing  for  High  and  Vocational  Schools 4to,  *i  25 

Lefevre,  L.     Architectural  Pottery.     Trans,  by  H.  K.  Bird  and  W.  M. 

Binns 4to,  *7  oo 

Lehner,  S.   Ink  Manufacture.   Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson.Svo,  *2  50 

Lemstrom,  S.     Electricity  in  Agriculture  and  Horticulture 8vo,  *i  50 

Letts,  E.  A.     Fundamental  Problems  in  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  oo 

Le  Van,  W.  B.   Steam-Engine  Indicator.  (Science  Series  No.  78).i6mo,  o  75 

Lewes,  V.  B.     Liquid  and  Gaseous  Fuels.     (Westminster  Series.) .  .8vo,  *2  oo 

Carbonization    of    Coal 8vo,  *5  oo 

Lewis,  L.  P.    Railway  Signal  Engineering 8vo,  *3  50 

Lewis  Automatic  Machine  Rifle;   Operation  of i6mo,  *o  60 

Licks,  H,  E.     Recreations  in  Mathematics i2mo,  *i  25 

Lieber,  B.  F.     Lieber's   Five  Letter  American  Telegraphic  Code  .8vo,  *is  oo 

Spanish    Edition    8vo,  *is  oo 

French   Edition    8vo,  *is  oo 

Terminal  Index 8vo,  *2  50 

Lieber's  Appendix folio,  *is  oo 

—  Handy  Tables 4to,  *2  50 

Bankers  and  Stockbrokers'  Code  and  Merchants  and  Shippers' 

Blank  Tables 8vo,  *i$  oo 

100,000,000  Combination  Code 8vo,  *io  oo 

Engineering  Code 8vo,  *i2  50 

Livermore,  V.  P.,  and  Williams,  J.     How  to  Become  a  Competent  Motor- 
man  i2mo,  *i  oo 

Livingstone,   R.     Design  and   Constrmction   of   Commutators 8vo,  *3  oo 

Mechanical  Design  and  Construction  of  Generators 8vo,  *3  50 

Lloyd,  S.   L.     Fertilizer  Materials i2mo,  2  oo 

Lobben,  P.     Machinists'  and  Draftsmen's  Handbook 8vo,  2  50 

Lockwood,  T.  D.     Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Electro-telegraph   ....8vo,     250 
Electrical  Measurement  and  the  Galvanometer i2mo,  o  75 


18        D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Lodge,  O.  J.  Elementary  Mechanics .-, i2mo,  i  50 

Signalling  Across  Space  without  Wires 8vo,  *2  oo 

Loewenstein,  L.  C.,  and  Crissey,  C.  P.     Centrifugal  Pumps *4  50 

Lomax,  J.  W.     Cotton  Spinning i2mo,  i  50 

Lord,  R.  T.     Decorative  and  Fancy  Fabrics Svo,  *3  50 

Loring,  A.  E.    A  Handbook  of  the  Electromagnetic  Telegraph  . 

(Science  Series  No.  39.)  i6mo,  o  75 

Low,  D.  A.     Applied  Mechanics  (Elementary) i6mo,  o  80 

Lubschez,  B.  J.     Perspective I2mo,  *i  50 

Lucke,  C.  E.     Gas  Engine  Design Svo,  *3  oo 

Power  Plants:   Design,  Efficiency,  and  Power  Costs.     2  vols. 

(In  Preparation.) 

Luckiesh,  M.     Color  and  Its  Application Svo,  *s  oo 

Light   and  Shade  and  Their  Applications Svo,  *2  50 

Lunge,  G.     Coal-tar  and  Ammonia.     Three  Volumes Sve,  *25  oo 

. Technical  Gas  Analysis Svo,  *4  50 

—  Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Alkali.     Four  Volumes ....  Svo, 

Vol.     I.     Sulphuric  Acid.     In  three  parts *i8  oo 

Vol.  I.    Supplement Svo,  5  oo 

Vol.  II.     Salt  Cake,  Hydrochloric  Acid  and  Leblanc  Soda.    In  two 

par:1?    (In   Press.) 

Vol.  Ill     Ammonia  Soda (In  Press.) 

Vol.  IV      Electrolytic  Methods '(In  Press.) 

• Technical   Chemists'  Handbook i2mo,  leather,  *4  oo 

Technical  Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis.    Trans,  by  C.  A.  Keane 

in  collaboration  with  the  corps  of  specialists. 

Vol.     I.     In  two  parts Svo,  *is  oo 

Vol.   II.    In  two  parts Svo,  *i8  oo 

Vol.  III.     In  two  parts Svo,  *i8  oo 

The  set   (3  vols.)   complete *5o  oo 

Luquer,  L.  M.     Minerals  in  Rock  Sections Svo,  *i   50 

MacBride,  J.  D.     A  Handbook  of  Practical  Shipbuilding, 

i2mo,  fabrikoid,  2  oo 

Macewen,  H.  A.     Food  Inspection Svo,  *z  50 

Mackenzie,  N.  F.     Notes  on  Irrigation  Works Svo,  *2  50 

Mackie,  J.     How  to  Make  a  Woolen  Mill  Pay Svo,  *2  oo 

Maguire,  Wm.  R.    Domestic  Sanitary  Drainage  and  Plumbing  ....  Svo,  4  oo 

Malcolm,  H.  W.     Submarine  Telegraph  Cable 8  50 

Mallet,  A.     Compound  Engines.     Trans,  by  R.  R.  Buel.     (Science  Series 

No.  10.) i6mo, 

.Mansfield,  A.  N.     Electro-magnets.      (Science  Series  No.  64.)..i6mo,  o  75 

Marks,  E.  C.  R.    Construction  of  Cranes  and  Lifting  Machinery.  i2mo,  *2  75 

Construction  and  Working  of  Pumps i2mo, 

Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel  Tubes i2mo,  *2  oo 

. Mechanical   Engineering  Materials i2mo,  *i  50 

Marks,  G.  C.     Hydraulic  Power  Engineering Svo,  4  50 

Inventions,  Patents  and  Designs i2mo,  *i  oo 

Marlow,  T.  G.    Drying  Machinery  and  Practice .Svo,  *s  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  19 

Marsh,  C.  F.     Concise  Treatise  on  Reinforced  Concrete 8vo,  *2  50 

Reinforced  Concrete  Compression  Member  Diagram.     Mounted  on 

Cloth  Boards *i .  50 

Marsh,  C.  F.,  and  Dunn,  W.     Manual  of  Reinforced  Concrete  and  Con- 
crete Block  Construction i6mo,  fabrikoid   (In  Press.) 

Marshall,  W.  J.,  and  Sankey,  H,  R.     Gas  Engines.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo,  *2  oo 

Martin,   G.     Triumphs  and  Wonders  of   Modern   Chemistry 8vo,  *s  oo 

—  Modern    Chemistry    and    Its    Wonders 8vo,  *3  oo 

Martin,  N.     Properties  and  Design  of  Reinforced  Concrete i2mo,  *2  50 

Martin,  W.  D.    Hints  to  Engineers i2mo,  *i  50 

Massie,  W.  W.,  and  Underbill,  C.  R.     Wireless  Telegraphy  and  Telephony. 

I2mo,  *i  oo 

Mathot,  R.  E.     Internal  Combustion  Engines 8vo,  *4  oo 

Maurice,  W.     Electric  Blasting  Apparatus  and  Explosives 8vo,  *3  50 

Shot  Firer's  Guide 8vo,  *i  50 

Maxwell,  F.     Sulphitation  in  White  Sugar  y.anufacture i2mo,  3  75 

Maxwell,     J.     C.      Matter    and  Motion.       (Science   Series  No.  36.). 

i6mo,  o  75 

Maxwell,  W.  H.,  and  Brown,  J.  T.     Encyclopedia  of  Municipal  and  Sani- 
tary Engineering 4to,  *io  oo 

Mayer,  A.  M.     Lecture  Notes  on  Physics 8vo,  2  oo 

Mayer,  C.,  and  Slippy,  J.  C.    Telephone  Line  Construction 8vo,  *3  oo 

McCullough,  E.     Practical  Surveying lamo,  *2  oo 

—  Engineering  Work  in  Cities  and  Towns : 8vo,  *3  oo 

Reinforced  Concrete    i2mo,  *i  50 

McCullough,  R.  S.     Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat 8vo,  3  50 

McGibbon.  W.  C.    Indicator  Diagrams  for  Marine  Engineers 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Marine  Engineers'  Drawing  Book oblong  4to,  *z  50 

McGibbon,  W.  C.     Marine  Engineers  Pocketbook i2mo,  *4  50 

Mclntosh,   J.    G.     Technology    of    Sugar 8vo,  *6  oo 

Industrial    Alcohol    8vo,  *3  50 

Manufacture  of  Varnishes  and  Kindred  Industries.     Three  Volumes. 

8vo. 

Vol.     I.     Oil  Crushing,  Refining  and  Boiling 

Vol.  II.     Varnish  Materials  and  Oil  Varnish  Making *5  oo 

Vol..  III.     Spirit  Varnishes  and  Materials *6  oo 

McKay,   C.   W.     Fundamental    Principles   of  the  Telephone  Business. 

8vo.    (In  Press.) 

McKillop,  M.,  and  McKillop,  A.  D.     Efficiency  Methods i2mo,  i  50 

M-Knight,  J.  D.,  and  Brown,  A.  W.     Marine  Multitubular  Boilers....  *2  50 
McMaster,  J.  B.     Bridge  and  Tunnel  Centres.     (Science  Series  No.  20.) 

i6mo,  o  75 

McMechen,  F.  L.     Tests  for  Ores,  Minerals  and  Metals i2mo,  *i  co 

McPherson,  J.  A.     Water-works  Distribution 8vo,  2  cc 

'TQ'de,   A.     Modern   Gas   Works   Practice , 8vo,  *8  50 

Melick,  C.  W.     Dairy  Laboratory  Guide i2mo,  *i  25 

'Mentor."     Self-Instruction  for  Students  in  Gas  Supply.     i2mo. 

Elements  ry    2  50 

Advanced     2  50 

Me-ck,  E.     Chemical   Reagents;  Their  Purity  and  Tests.     Trans,   by 

H.   E.   Schenek 8vo,  i  oo 

Meriva:e,  J.  H.     Notes  and  Formulae  for  Mining  Students 12010,  i  50 

Merritt,  Wm.  H.     Field  Testing  for  Gold  and  Silver.  ..  .i6mo,  leatker,  2  oo 


20       D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Mertens.     Tactics  and  Technique  of  River  Crossings.     Translated  by 

W.    Kruger 8vo,  2  50 

Mierzinski,  S.     Waterproofing  of  Fabrics.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and  H. 

Robson    Svo,  *2  50 

Miessner,  B.  F.     Radio  Dynamics i2mo,  *2  oo 

Miller,  G.  A.     Determinants.     (Science  Series  No   105.) i6mo, 

Miller,  W.  J.     Introduction  to  Historical  Geology i2mo,  *2  oo 

Milroy,  M.  E.  W.     Home  Lace-making i2mo,  *i  oo 

Mills,  C.  N.    Elementary  Mechanics  for  Engineers Svo,  *i  oo 

Mitchell,  C.  A.     Mineral  and  Aerated  Waters Svo,  *3  oo 

Mitchell,  C.  A.,  and  Prideaux,  R.  M.     Fibres  Used  in  Textile  and  Allied 

Industries Svo,  3  50 

Mitchell,  C.  F.,  and  G.  A.     Building  Construction  and  Drawing.     i2mo. 

Elementary  Course *i  50 

Advanced  Course *2  50 

Monckton,  C.  C.  F.     Radiotelegraphy.     (Westminster  Series.) Svo,  *2  oo 

Monteverde,  R.  D.     Vest  Pocket  Glossary  of  English-Spanish,  Spanish- 
English  Technical  Terms 64010,  leather,  *i  oo 

Montgomery,  J.  H.     Electric  Wiring  Specificationc i6mo,  *i  oo 

Moore,  E.  C.  S      New  Tables  for  the  Complete  Solution  of  Ganguillet  and 

Kttter's   Formula    Svo,  *6  oo 

Moore,  Harold.     Liquid  Fuel  for  Internal  Combustion  Engines.  .. Svo,  5  oo 
Morecroft,  J.  H.,  and  Hehre,  F.  W.     Short  Course  in  Electrical  Testing. 

Svo,  *i  50 

Morgan,  A.  P.     Wireless  Telegraph  Apparatus  for  Amateurs i2mo,  *i  50 

Moses,  A.  J.     The  Characters  of  Crystals Svo,  *2  oo 

and  Parsons,  C.   L.     Elements  of   Mineralogy Svo,  *3  50 

Moss,  S.  A.     Elements  of  Gas  Engine  Design.      (Science   Series  No. 

121.)    i6mo,  o  75 

--The  Lay-out  of  Corliss  Valve  Gears.     (Science  Series  No.  119.) 

i6mo,  o  75 

Mulford,  A.  C.    Boundaries  and  Landmarks i2mo,  *i  oo 

Mullin,  J.  P.     Modern  Moulding  and  Pattern-making i2mo,  2  50 

Munby,  A.  E.     Chemistry  and  Physics  of  Building  Materials.     (West- 
minster Series.) STO,  *2  oo 

Murphy,  J.  G.     Practical  Mining i6mo,  i  oo 

Murray,  J.  A.     Soils  and  Manures.     (Westminster  Series.) Svo,  *2  oo 

Nasmith,  J.     The  Student's  Cotton  Spinning. Svo,  4  50 

Recent  Cotton  Mill  Construction i2mo,  2  50 

Neave,  G.  B.,  and  Heilbron,  I.  M.     Identification  of  Organic  Compounds. 

i2mo,  *i  25 

Neilson,  R.  M.     Aeroplane  Patents Svo,  *2  oo 

Nerz,  F.     Searchlights.     Trans,  by  C.  Rodgers Svo,  *3  oo 

Neuberger,  H.,  and  Noalhat,  H.     Technology  of  Petroleum.     Trans,  by 

J.  G.  Mclntosh Svo,  *io  oo 

Newall,  J.  W.     Drawing,  Sizing  and  Cutting  Bevel-gears Svo,  i  50 

Newbigin,  M.  I.,  and   Flett,  J.  S.     James  Geikie,  the  Man  and  the 

Geologist Svo,  350 

Newbeging,  T.     Handbook  for  Gas  Engineers  and  Managers Svo,  *6  50 

Newell,  F.  K.,  and  Drayer,  C.  E.    Engineering  as  a  Career.  .i2mo,  cloth,  *!  oo 

paper,  o  75 

Nicol,  G.     Ship  Construction  and  Calculations Svo,  *io  oo 

Nipher,  F.  E.     Theory  of  Magnetic  Measurements I2mo,  i  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  21 

Nisbet,  H.     Grammar  of  Textile  Design 8vo,  7  50 

Nolan,  H.     The  Telescope.     (Science  Series  No.  51.) i6mo,  o  75 

Norie,  J.  W.    Epitome  of  Navigation  (2  Vols.) octavo,  15  oo 

A  Complete  Set  of  Nautical  Tables  with  Explanations  of  Their 

Use    octavo,  6  50 

North,  H.  B.    Laboratory  Experiments  in  General  Chemistry zarno,  *i  oo 

O'Connor,  H.  The  Gas  Engineer's  Pocketbook .  lamo,  leather,  3  50 

Ohin,  G.  S.,  and  Lockwood,  T.  D.  Galvanic  Circuit  Translated  by 

William  Francis  (Science  Series  No.  102.) iGmo,  o  75 

Olsen,  J.  C.  Text-book  of  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis 8vo,  3  50 

Olsson,  A.  Motor  Control,  in  Turret  Turning  and  Gun  Elevating.  (U.  S. 

Navy  Electrical  Series,  No.  i.) I2mo,  paper,  *o  50 

Ormsby,  M.  T.  M.  Surveying i2mo,  2  oo 

Oudin,  M.  A.  Standard  Polyphase  Apparatus  and  Systems 8vo,  *3  oo 

Owen,  D.  Recent  Physical  Research 8vo, 

Pakes,  W.  C.  C.,  and  Nankivell,  A.  T.     The  Science  of  Hygiene  .  .8vo,  *i  75 

Palaz,  A.     Industrial  Photometry.     Trans,  by  G.  W.  Patterson,  Jr ..  8vo,  *4  oo 

Palmer,  A.   R.     Electrical   Experiments i2mo,  o  75 

—  Magnetic  Measurements  and  Experiments i2mo,  o  75 

Pamely,  C.     Colliery  Manager's  Handbook 8vo,  *io  oo 

Parker,  P.  A.  M.     The  Control  of  Water 8vo,  *5  oo 

Parr,  G.  D.  A.     Electrical  Engineering  Measuring  Instruments.  ..  .8vo,  *3  50 
Parry,  E.  J,     Chemistry  of  Essential  Oils  and  Artificial  Perfumes. 

Foods  and  Drugs.     Two  Volumes. 

Vol.  I.     Monograghs  on  Essential  Oils *9  °° 

Vol.  II.     Constituents  of  Essential  OUs,  Analysis 

and  Coste,  J.  H.    Chemistry  of  Pigments 8vo,  *5  oo 

Parry,  L.     Notes  on  Alloys 8vo,  *3  50 

Metalliferous  Wastes    ' 8vo,  *2  50 

Analysis  of  Ashes  and  Alloys 8vo,  *2  50 

Parry,  L.  A.     Risk  and  Dangers  of  Various  Occupations 8vo,  *3  50 

Parshall,  H.  F.,  and  Hobart,  H.  M.     Armature  Windings 410,  *7  50 

—  Electric    Railway    Engineering 4to,  *7  50 

Parsons,  J.  L.     Land  Drainage 8vo,  *i  50 

Parsons,  S.  J     Malleable  Cast  Iron 8vo,  *2  50 

Partington,  J.  R.    Higher  Mathematics  for  Chemical  Students.  .i2mo,  *2  oo 
Textbook  of  Thermodynamics 8vo,  *4  oo 

—  The    Alkali    Industry 8vo,  3  oo 

Passmore,  A.   C.     Technical  Terms  Used  in  Architecture 8vo,  *3  50 

Patchell,  W.  H.    Electric  Power  in  Mines 8vo,  *4  oo 

Pat erson,  G.  W.  L.    Wiring  Calculations i2mo,  *2  50 

—  Electric  Mine  Signalling  Installations i2mo,  *i  50 

Patterson,  D.     The  Color  Printing  of  Carpet  Yarns 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Color   Matching    on   Textiles 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Textile  Color  Mixing. 8vo,  *3  50 

Paulding,  C.  P,     Condensation  of  Steam  in  Covered  and  Bare  Pipes     8vo,  *2  oo- 

Transmission  of  Heat  through  Cold-storage  Insulation i2mo,  *i  oo 

Payne,  D.  W.     Iron  Founders'  Handbook 8vo,  *4  oo 

Peddie,  R.  A.     Engineering  and  Metallurgical  Books I2mo,  *i  50 

Peirce,  B      System  of  Analytic  Mechanics 410,  10  oo 

—  Linnear   Associative   Algebra 4to,  3  oo 

Pendred,  V      The  Railway  Locomotive.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 


22        D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Perkin,  F.  M.    Practical  Methods  of  Inorganic  Chemistry izmo,  *i  oo 

Perrin,  J.     Atoms 8vo,  *2  50 

and  Jaggers,  E.  M.     Elementary  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  oo 

Perrine,  F.  A.  C.     Conductors  for  Electrical  Distribution 8vo,  *3  50 

Petit,  G.     White  Lead  and  Zinc  White  Paints 8vo,  *2  oo 

Petit,  R.     How  to  Build  an  Aeroplane.     Trans,  by  T.  O'B.  Hubbard,  and 

J.  H.  Ledeboer 8vo,  *i  50 

Pettit,  Lieut,  J.  S.    Graphic  Processes.     (Science  Series  No.  76.) .  i6mo,  o  75 
Philbrick,  P.  H.     Beams  and  Girders.     (Science  Series  No.  88.) .  .  .  i6mo, 

Phillips,  J.     Gold   Assaying 8vo,  *3  75 

Dangerous  Goods 8vo,  3  50 

Phin,  J.     Seven  Follies  of  Science 12010,  *i  50 

Pickworth,  C.  N.     The  Indicator  Handbook.     Two  Volumes.  .  i2mo,  each,  i  50 

Logarithms  for  Beginners '. i2mo.  boards,  o  50 

The  Slide  Rule i2mo,  i  50 

Pilcher,  R.  B.,  and  Butler-Jones,  F.    What  Industry  Owes  to  Chemical 

Science i2mo,  i  50 

Plattner's  Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis.    Eighth  Edition,  revised.    Trans. 

by  H.  B.  Cornwall 8vo,  *4  oo 

Plympton,  G.  W.    The  Aneroid  Baremeter.     (Science  Series  No.  35.) 

i6mo,  o  75 

How  to  Become  an  Engineer.     (Science  Series  No.  100.)  . .  .i6mo,  o  75 

Van  Nostrand's  Table  Book.     (Science  Series  No.  104.)  . . .  .i6mo,  o  75 

Pochet,  M.  L.     Steam  Injectors.     Translated  from  the  French.     (Science 

Series    No.    29.) i6mo,  o  75 

Pocket  Logarithms  to  Four  Places.     (Science  Series  No.  65.).  ..i6mo.,  o  75 

leather,  i  oo 

Polleyn,  F.     Dressings  and  Finishings  for  Textile  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  50 

Pope,  F.  G.    Organic  Chemistry i2mo,  2  50 

Pope,  F.  L.     Modern  Practice  of  the  Electric  Telegraph 8vo,  i  50 

Popplewell,  W.  C.     Prevention   of   Smoke 8vo,  *3  50 

Strength   of   Materials 8vo,  *2  50 

Porritt,   B.   D.     The   Chemistry   of   Rubber.      (Chemical   Monographs, 

No.   3.) 12010,  *i  oo 

Porter,  J.  R.    Helicopter  Flying  Machine i2mo,  i  50 

Potts,  H.  E.     Chemistry  of  the  Rubber  Industry.     (Outlines  of  Indus- 
trial   Chemistry) 8vo,  *2  50 

Practical  Compounding  of  Oils,  Tallows  and  Grease 8vo,  *3  50 

Pratt,  K.    Boiler  Draught i2mo,  *i  25 

High  Speed  Steam   Engines 8vo,  *2  oo 

Pray,  T.,  Jr.     Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator 8vo,  2  50 

Steam  Tables  and  Engine  Constant 8vo,  2  oo 

Prelini,  C.     Earth  and  Rock  Excavation 8vo,  *3  oo 

Graphical  Determination  of  Earth  Slopes 8vo,  *2  oo 

Tunneling.    New  Editiop    8vo,  *3  oo 

Dredging.    A  Practical  Treatise 8vo,  *3  oo 

Prescott,  A.  B.     Organic  Analysis 8vo,  5  oo 

Prescott,  A.  B.,  and  Johnson,  O.  C.     Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  .  .8vo,  *3  50 
Prescott,  A.  B.,  and  Sullivan,  E.  C.     First  Book  in  Qualitative  Chemistry. 

i2mo,  *i  50 

Prideaux,  E.  B.  R.     Problems  in  Physical  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  oo 

The  Theory  and  Use  of  Indicators 8vo,  5  oo 

Primrose,  G.  S.  C.     Zinc.     (Metallurgy  Series.) (In  Press,") 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  23 

Prince,  G.  T.    Flow  of  Water i2mo,  *2  oo 

Prost,  E.     Manual  of  Chemical  Analysis 8vo,  600 

Pull,  E.     Modern  Steam  Boilers 8vo,  5  oo 

Pullen,   W.   W.  F.     Application  of  Graphic  Methods  to  the  Design  of 

Structures i2mo,  *2  50 

Injectors:    Theory,   Construction   and  Working i2mo,  *2  oo 

— Indicator  Diagrams    8vo,  *2  50 

—  Engine  Testing  .' 8vo,  *$  50 

Putsch,  A.     Gas  and  Coal-dust  Firing 8vo,  *2  50 

Pynchon,  T.  R.     Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics 8vo,  3  oo 

Rafter,  G.  W.  Mechanics  of  Ventilation.  (Science  Series  No.  33.)  .i6mo,  o  75 

Potable   Water.      (Science   Series   No.   103.) i6mo,  o  75 

Treatment  of  Septic  Sewage.     (Science  Series  No.  n8.).-i6mo,  o  75 

Rafter,  G.  W.,  and  Baker,  M.  N.     Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States. 

4to,  *6  oo 

Raikes,  H.  P.     Sewage  Disposal  Works 8vo,  *4  oo 

Randau,   P.     Enamels   and   Enamelling 8vo,  *s  oo 

Rankine,  W.  J.  M.     Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  5  oo 

Civil  Engineering 8vo,  6  50 

Machinery  and  Millwork 8vo,  5  oo 

The  Steam-engine  and  Other  Prime  Movers 8vo,  5  oo 

Rankine,  W.  J.  M.,  and  Bamber,  E.  F.     A  Mechanical  Text-book 8vo,  3  50 

Ransome,  W.  R.    Freshman  Mathematics izmo,  *i  35 

Raphael,  F.  C.     Localization  of  Faults  in  Electric  Light  and  Power  Mains. 

8vo,  3  50 

Rasch,  E.    Electric  Arc  Phenomena.    Trans,  by  K.  Tornberg 8vo,  *2  oo 

Rathbone,  R.  L.  B.     Simple  Jewellery 8vo,  *2  oo 

Rateau,  A.     Flow  of  Steam  through  Nozzles  and  Orifices.     Trans,  by  H. 

B.  Brydon 8vo  *i  50 

Rausenberger,  F.     The  Theory  of  the  Recoil  Guns 8vo,  *5  oo 

Rautenstrauch,  Wo    Notes  on  the  Elements  of  Machine  Design. 8vo,  boards,  *i  50 
Rautenstrauch,  W.,  and  Williams,  J=  T.     Machine  Drafting  and  Empirical 
Design. 

Part   I.  Machine  Drafting 8vo,  *i  25 

Part  II.  Empirical  Design (In  Preparation.) 

Raymond,  E.  B.     Alternating  Current  Engineering I2mo,  *2  50 

Rayner,  H.     Silk  Throwing  and  Waste  Silk  Spinning 8vo, 

Recipes  for  the  Color,  Paint,  Varnish,  Oil,  Soap  and  Drysaltery  Trades, 

8vo,  *s  oo 

Recipes  for  Flint  Glass   Making 12010,  *5  oo 

Redfern,  J.  B.,  and  Savin,  J.    Bells,  Telephones  (Installation  Manuals 

Series.) i6mo,  *o  50 

Redgrove,  H.  S.     Experimental  Mensuration i2mo,  *i  25 

Redwood,  B.     Petroleum.      (Science  Series  No.  92.) i5mo,  o  75 

Reed,  S.    Turbines  Applied  to  Marine  Propulsion *5  oo 

Reed's  Engineers'  Handbook 8vo,  *g  oo 

Key  to  the  Nineteenth  Edition  of  Reed's  Engineers'  Handbook.  .8vo,  4  oo 

Useful  Hints  to  Sea-going  Engineers i2mo,  3  oo 

Reid,  E.  E.    Introduction  to  Research  in  Organic  Chemistry.  (In  Press  J) 
Reinhardt,  C.  W.     Lettering  for  Draftsmen,  Engineers,  and  Students. 

oblong  4to,  boards,  i  oo 


24 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 


Reinhardt,  C.  W.   The  Technic  of  Mechanical  Drafting, 

oblong,  4to,  boards,  *i  oo 
Reiser,  F.     Hardening  and  Tempering  of  Steel.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and 

H.  Robson  lamo,  *2  50 

Reiser,  N.     Faults  in  the  Manufacture  of  Woolen  Goods.     Trans,  by  A. 

Morris  and  H.  Robson. 8vo,  *2  50 

Spinning   and   Weaving   Calculations 8vo,  ^500 

Renwick,  W.  G.     Marble  and  Marble  Working 8vo,  5  oo 

Reuleaux,  F.     The  Constructor.     Trans,  by  H.  H.  Suplee 4to,  *4  oo 

Rey,  Jean.     The  Range  of  Electric  Searchlight  Projectors 8vo,  *4  50 

Reynolds,   0.,   and  Idell,   F.   E.     Triple   Expansion   Engines.     (Science 

Series  No.  99.) iGrao,  o  75 

Rhead,  G.   F.     Simple  Structural  Woodwork i2mo,  *i  25 

Rhead,  G.  W.     British  Pottery  Marks 8vo,  3  50 

Rhodes,  H.  J.    Art  of  Lithography 8vo,  5  oo 

Rice,  J.  M.,  and  Johnson,  W.  W.     A  New  Method  of  Obtaining  the  Differ- 
ential of  Functions lamo,  o  50 

Richards,  W.  A.     Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel i2mo,  i  50 

Richards,  W.  A.,  and  North,  H.  B.    Manual  of  Cement  Testing i2mo,  *i  50 

Richardson,  J.     The  Modern  Steam  Engine 8vo,  *3  50 

Richardson,  S.  S.     Magnetism  and  Electricity i2mo,  *2  oo 

Rideal,  S.     Glue  and  Glue  Testing 8vo,  *s  oo 

Riesenberg,  F.    The  Men  on  Deck i2mo,  3  oo 

Standard  Seamanship  for  the  Merchant  Marine.  i2mo  (In  Press.) 

Rimmer,  E.  J.    Boiler  Explosions,  Collapses  and  Mishaps 8vo,  *i  75 

Rings,  F.     Reinforced  Concrete  in  Theory  and  Practice lamo,  *4  50 

Reinforced  Concrete  Bridges 4to,  *5  oo 

Ripper,  W      Course  of  Instruction  in  Machine  Drawing folio,  *6  oo 

Roberts,  F.  C.    Figure  of  the  Earth.     (Science  Series  No.  79.) . .  i6mo,  o  75 

Roberts,  J.,  Jr.     Laboratory  Work  in  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  *2  oo 

Robertson,  L.  S.     Water-tube  Boilers 8vo,  2  oo 

Robinson,  J.  B.     Architectural  Composition 8vo,  *2  50 

Robinson,  S.  W.     Practical  Treatise  on  the  Teeth  of  Wheels.     (Science 

Series    No.    24.) i6mo,  o  ^5 

Railroad  Economics.     (Science  Series  No.  59.) 16010,  o  75 

—  Wrought  Iron  Bridge  Members.    (Science  Series  No.  6o.)..i6mo,  o  75 

Robson,  J.  H.     Machine  Drawing  and  Sketching 8vo,  *2  oo 

Roebling,  J.  A.    Long  and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges folio,  25  oo 

Rogers,  A.     A  Laboratory  Guide  of  Industrial  Chemistry 8vo,  2  oo 

Elements    of    Industrial    Chemistry. i2mo,  *3  oo 

Manual  of  Industrial  Chemistry 8vo,  *$  oo 

Rogers,   F.     Magnetism   of   Iron   Vessels.      (Science    Series   No.   30.) 

iGmo,  o  75 
Rohland,  P.     Colloidal  and  Crystalloidal  State  of  Matter.     Trans,  by 

W.  J.  Britland  and  H.  E.  Potts i2mo,  *i  25 

Rollinson,  C.     Alphabets Oblong,  i2mo,  *i  oo 

Rose,  J.     The  Pattern-makers'  Assistant 8vo,  2  50 

—  Key  to  Engines  and  Engine-running I2mo,  2  50 

Rose,  T.  K.     The  Precious  Metals.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Rosenhain,  W.     Glass  Manufacture.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

—  Physical  Metallurgy,  An  Introduction   to.      (Metallurgy   Series.) 

8vo,  *3  50 

Roth,   W.   A.     Physical   Chemistry 8vo,  *2  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  25 

Rowan,  F.  J.    Practical  Physics  of  the  Modern  Steam-boiler 8vo,  *3  oo 

and    Idell,    F.    E.     Boiler   Incrustation   and   Corrosion.      (Science 

Series    No.    27.) i6mo,  o  75 

Roxburgh,  W.    General  Foundry  Practice.     (Westminster  Series.)  .8vo,  *2  oo 

Ruhmer,  E.    Wireless  Telephony.     Trans,  by  J.  Erskine-Murray.  .8vo,  *4  50 

Russell,  A.     Theory  of  Electric  Cables  and  Networks 8vo,  *3  oo 

Rust,  A.     Practical  Tables  for  Navigators  and  Aviators 8vo,  3  50 

Rutley,  F.     Elements  of  Mineralogy i2mo,  *i  25 

Sandeman,  E.  A.    Notes  on  the  Manufacture  of  Earthenware. .  .i2mo,  3  50 

Sanford,  P.  G.     Nitro-explosives 8vo,  *4  oo 

Saunders,  C.  H.     Handbook  of  Practical  Mechanics i6mo,  i  oo 

leather,  i  25 

Sayers,  H.  M.     Brakes  for  Tram  Cars 8vo,  *i  25 

Scheele,  C.  W.     Chemical  Essays 8vo,  *2  50 

Scheithauer,  W.     Shale  Oils  and  Tars 8vo,  *4  oo 

Scherer,  R.    Casein.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *3  50 

Schidrowitz,  P.     Rubber,  Its  Production  and  Industrial  Uses 8vo,  *6  oo 

Schindler,   K.     Iron   and   Steel   Construction   Works Tamo,  *2  oo 

Schmall,  C.  N.     First  Course  in  Analytic  Geometry,  Plane  and  Solid. 

i2mo,  half  leather,  *i  75 

—  and  Shack,  S.  M.     Elements  of  Plane  Geometry i2mo,  i  25 

Schmeer,  L.     Flow  of  Water 8vo,  *3  oo 

Schumann,  F.    A  Manual  of  Heating  and  Ventilation.  ..  .i2mo,  leather,  i  50 

Schwarz,  E.  H.  L.     Causal  Geology 8vo,  *3  oo 

Schweizer,  V.     Distillations  of  Resins 5vo,  5  oo 

Scott,  A.  H.     Reinforced  Concrete  in  Practice ismo,  2  oo 

Scott,   W.   W.     Qualitative  Analysis.     A  Laboratory  Manual.     New 

Edition 2  50 

Standard    Methods    of   Chemical    Analysis 8vo,  *6  oo 

Scribner,  J.  M.     Engineers'  and  Mechanics'  Companion.  .i6mo,  leather,  i  50 
Scudder,    H.     Electrical    Conductivity    and    lonization    Constants    of 

Organic  Compounds 8vo,  *3  oo 

Seamanship,   Lectures   on izmo,  2  oo 

Searle,  A.  B.    Modern  Brickmaking 8vo   (In  Press  ) 

Cement,  Concrete  and  Bricks 8vo,  *6  50 

Searle,     G.    M.      "Sumners'    Method."      Condensed     and     Improved. 

(Science   Series  No.   124.) i5mo,  075 

Seaton,  A.  E.     Manual  of  Marine  Engineering 8vo  800 

Seaton,  A.  E.,  and  Rounthwaite,  H.  M.    Pocket-book  of  Marine  Engi- 
neering  i6mo,  leather,  5  oo 

Seeligmann,  T.,  Torrilhon,  G.  L.,  and  Falconnet,  H.    India  Rubber  and 

Gutta   Percha.     Trans,   by  J.   G.   Mclntosh 8vo,  *6  oo 

Seidell,  A.     Solubilities  of  Inorganic  and  Organic  Substances.  ..  .8vo,  3  oo 

Seligman,   R.     Aluminum.      (Metallurgy   Series.) (In  Press.) 

Sellew,  W.  H.     Steel   Rails 4to,  *io  oo 

—  Railway   Maintenance    Engineering i2mo,  *a  50 

Senter.  G.     Outlines  of  Physical  Chemistry i2mo,  *2  50 

—  Text-book  of  Inorganic  Chemistry i2mo,  *3  oo 

Sever,  G.  F.    Electric  Engineering  Experiments 8vo,  boards,  *i  oo 

Sever,  G.  F.,  and  Townsend,  F.    Laboratory  and  Factory  Tests  in  Elec- 
trical Engineering 8vo,  *a  50 


26       D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Sewall,  C.  H.    Wireless  Telegraphy 8vo,  *z  oo 

Lessons  in  Telegraphy i2mo,  vi  oo 

Sewell,  T.     The  Construction  of  Dynamos 8vo,  *3  oo 

Sexton,  A.  H.     Fuel  and  Refractory  Materials izmo,  *2  50 

.  Chemistry  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering i?.mo,  *3  oo 

Alloys   (Non-Ferrous) 8vo,  *3  oo 

Sexton,  A.  H.,  and  Primrose,  J.  S.  G.  The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

8vo,  *6  50 

Seymour,   A.     Modern   Printing   Inks 8vo,  *2  50 

Shaw,  Henry  S.  H.    Mechanical  Integrators.    (Science  Series  No.  83.) 

i'5mo,  o  75 

Shaw,  S.     History  of  the  Staffordshire  Potteries .8vo,  2  50 

—  Chemistry  of  Compounds  Used  in  Porcelain  Manufacture.  ..  .8vo,  *6  oo 

S4iaw,   T.    R.     Driving    of    Machine    Tools i2mo,  *2  oo 

Precision    Grinding    Machines ismo,  5  oo 

Shaw,  W.  N.     Forecasting  Weather 8vo,  *3  50 

Sheldon,  S.,  and  Hausmann,  E.    Direct  Current  Machines i2mo,  *2  50 

Alternating  Current  Machines i2mo,  *2  50 

Sheldon,  S.,  and  Hausmann,  E.     Electric  Traction  and  Transmission 

Engineering i2mo,  *2  50 

Physical  Laboratory  Experiments,  for  Engineering  Students.  .8vo,  *i  25 

Sherriff,  F.  F.     Oil  Merchants'  Manual  and  Oil  Trade  Ready  Reckoner, 

8yo>  3  50 

Shields,  J.  E.     Notes  on  Engineering  Construction i2mo,  i  50 

Shreve,  S.  H.     Strength  of  Bridges  and  Roofs 8vo,  3  50 

Shunk,  W.  F.    The  Field  Engineer i2mo,  fabrikoid,  2  50 

Simmons,  W.  H.,  and  Appleton,  H.  A.    Handbook  of  Soap  Manufacture, 

3/o,  *4  co 

Simmons,  W.  H.,  and  Mitchell,  C.  A.     Edible  Fats  and  Oils Svo,  *3  50 

Simpson,  G.     The  Naval  Constructor i2mo,  fabrikoid,  *$  oo 

Simpson,  W.     Foundations Svo.    (In  Press,} 

Sinclair,  A.     Development  of  the  Locomotive  Engine. .  .  Svo,  half  leather,  5  oo, 

Sindall,  R.  W.    Manufacture  of  Paper.     (Westminster  Series.).  ..  .8vo,  *2  oo 

Sindall,  R.  W.,  and  Bacon,  W.  N.     The  Testing  of  Wood  Pulp Svo,  *2  50 

Sloane,  T.  O'C.     Elementary  Electrical  Calculations i2mo,  *2  oo 

Smallwood,  J.  C.     Mechanical  Laboratory  Methods.     (Van  Nostrand's 

Textbooks.)    i2mo,  fabrikoid,  *3  oo 

Smith,  C.  A.  M.     Handbook  of  Testing,  MATERIALS Svo,  *2  50 

Smith,  C.  A.  M.,  and  Warren,  A.  G.     New  Steam  Tables Svo,  *i  25 

Smith,  C.  F.     Practical  Alternating  Currents  and  Testing Svo,  *3  50 

Practical   Testing   of   Dynamos   and   Motors Svo,  *3  oo 

Smith,  F.  E.     Handbook  of  General  Ir^tfuciion  for  Mechanics  .  .  .  larro,  I  50 
Smith,  G.  C.     Trinitrotoluenes  and  Mono-  and  Dinitrotoluenes,  Their 

Manufacture  and   Properties i2mo,  2  oo 

Smith,  H.  fJ.    Minerals  and  the  Microscope i2mo,  *i  25 

Smith,   T.  r.     Manufacture  o*  Paint Svo,  *5  oo 

Smith,  R.  H.     Principles  of  Machine  Work i2mo, 

—  Advanced  Machine  W<vrV   . i2mo,  *3  oo 

Smith,    W.      Chemistrv    of    Hat    Manufacturing 121110,  *3  50 

Snell,    A.    T.     Flecrric    MotiTp  Power Svo,  *4  oo 

Snow,  W.  G.     Pocketbook  of  Steam  Heatim?  and  Ventilation.    (Tn  Press.} 
Snow,  W.  G.,  and  Nolan,  T.    Ventilation  of  Buildings.     (Science  Series 

No.    «;.>    i6mo,  o  "* 

Soddy,  F.     Radioactivity Svo,  *3  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  27 

Solomon,  M.    Electric  Lamps.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Somerscales,  A.  N.     Mechanics  for  Marine  Engineers izmo,  *2  oo 

—  Mechanical  and  Marine  Engineering  Science 8vo,  *$  oo 

Sothern,  J.  W.     The  Marine  Steam  Turbine 8/0,  *i2  50 

Verbal  Notes  and  Sketches  for  Marine  Engineers Svo,  *i2  50 

Sothern,   J.    W.,   and    Sothern,   R.   M.     Elementary   Mathematics    for 

Marine    Engineers izmo,  *i  50 

Simple  Problems  in  Marine  Engineering  Design lamo, 

Souster,  E.  G.  W.     Design  of  Factory  and  Industrial  Buildings. .  .8vo,  4  oo 
Southcombe,  J.  E.     Chemistry  of  the  Oil  Industries      (Outlines  of  In- 
dustrial Chemistry.) Svo,  *3  oo 

Soxhlet,  D.  H.     Dyeing  and  Staining  Marble.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and 

H.  Robson    Svo,  *2  50 

Spangenburg,  L.     Fatigue  of  Metals.     Translated  by  S.   H.   Shreve. 

(Science  Series  No.   23.) i6mo,  o  75 

Specht,  G.  J.,  Hardy,  A.  S.,  McMaster,  J.  B.,  and  Walling.    Topographical 

Surveying.       (Science    Series    No.    72.) xf5mo,  o  75 

Spencer,  A.  S.     Design  of  Steel-Framed  Sheds Svo,  *3  50 

Speyers,  C.  L.     Text-book  of  Physical  Chemistry Svo,  *i  50 

Spiegel,  L.    Chemical  Constitution  and  Physiological  Action.     (  Trans. 

by  C.  Luedeking  and  A.  C.  Boylston.) i2mo,  *i  25 

Sprague,   E.   H.     Hydraulics 12010,  2  co 

—  Elements    of   Graphic    Statics Svo,  2  co 

Stability  of   Masonry iamo,  2  oo 

— —  Elementary  Mathematics  for  Engineers lamo,  2  co 

Stability    of    Arches i  ?.mo,  2  oo 

Strength  of  Structural  Elements i2mo,  2  oo 

Moving  Loads  by  Influence  Lines  and  Other  Methods iamo,  2  oo 

Stahl,  A.  W.     Transmission  of  Power.     (Science  Series  No.  28.)  .  i6mo, 

Stahl,  A.  W.,  and  Woods,  A.  T.     Elementary  Mechanism i2mo,  *2  oo 

Staley,  C.,  and  Pierson,  G.  S.     The  Separate  System  of  Sewerage. .  .8vo,  *3  oo 

Standage,    H.    C.      Leatherworkers'    Manual Svo,  *3  50 

Sealing   Waxes,   Wafers,   and   Other  Adhesives Svo,  *2  50 

Agglutinants   of   all   Kinds    for   all   Purposes i2mo,  *4  50 

Stanley,  H.    Practical  Applied  Physics (In  Press.) 

Stansbie,  J.  H.     Iron  and  Steel.     (Westminster  Series.) Svo,  *2  oo 

Steadman,  F.  M.     Unit  Photography i2mo,  *2  oo 

Stecher,  G.  E.     Cork.    Its  Origin  and  Industrial  Uses i2mo,  i  oo 

Steinheil,   A.,   and   Voit,    E.     Applied    Optics Svo,  500 

Steinman,  D.  B.     Suspension  Bridges  and  Cantilevers.     (Science  Series 

No.  127. )    075 

—  Melan's   Steel   Arches  and   Suspension   Bridges Svo,  *3  oo 

Stevens,  E.  J.     Field  Telephones  and  Telegraphs i  20 

Stevens,  H.  P.     Paper  Mill  Chemist i6mo    (In  Press. ) 

Stevens,  J.  S.     Theory  of  Measurements i2mo,  *i  25 

Stevenson,  J.  L.     Blast-Furnace  Calculations i2mo,  leather,  *2  oo 

Stewart,  G.    Modern  Steam  Traps i2mo,  *i  75 

Stiles,  A.     Tables  for  Field  Engineers i2mo,  i  oo 

Stodola,  A.     Steam  Turbines.    Trans,  by  L.  C.  Loewenstein Svo,  *5  oo 

Stone,  H.     The  Timbers  of  Commerce Svo,  3  50 

Stopes,  M.     Ancient  Plants .Svo,  *2  oo 

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Sudborough,  J.  J.,  and  James,  T.  C.    Practical  Organic  Chemistry. .  i2mo,  *2  oo 

Suf fling,   E.   R.     Treatise   on  the  Art   of  Glass   Painting Svo,  *3  50 


28       D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Sullivan,  T.  V.,  and  Underwood,  N.    Testing  and  Valuation  of  Build- 
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Sur,  F.  J.  S.     Oil  Prospecting  and  Extracting 8vo,    *i  oo 

Svenson,  C.  L.     Handbook  on  Piping 8vo,      4  oo 

Essentials  of  Drafting 8vo,      i  50 

Swan,  K.     Patents,  Designs  and  Trade  Marks.     (Westminster  Series.). 

8vo,     *2  oo 
Swinburne,  J.,  Wordingham,  C.  H.,  and  Martin,  T.  C.     Electric  Currents. 

( Science    Series    No.    109.) i6mo,      075 

Swoope,  C.  W.    Lessons  in  Practical  Electricity I2mo,     *2  oo 

Tailfer,  L.     Bleaching  Linen  and  Cotton  Yarn  and  Fabrics Svo,      7  oo 

Tate,  J.  S.     Surcharged  and  Different  Forms  of  Retaining- walls.    (Science 

Series    No.    7.) i6mo,      o  75 

Taylor,  F.  N.     Small  Water  Supplies i2mo,    *2  50 

—  Masonry   in   Civil   .Engineering Svo,     *2  50 

Templeton,  W.     Practical  Mechanic's  Workshop  Companion. 

i2mo,  morocco,       2  oo 
Tenney,    E.    H.      Test    Methods    for    Steam    Power    Plants.      (Van 

Nostrand's  Textbooks.)    i2mo,    *z  50 

Terry,  H.  L.    India  Rubber  and  its  Manufacture.     (Westminster  Series.) 

Svo,     *2  oo 
Thayer,  H.  R.     Structural  Design.     Svo. 

Vol.     I.     Elements  of  Structural  Design *2  oc 

Vol.   II.    Design  of  Simple  Structures *4  oo 

Vol.  III.    Design  of  Advanced  Structures (In  Preparation.) 

Foundations  and   Masonry (In   Preparation.) 

Thiess,  J.  B.,  and  Joy,  G.  A.     Toll  Telephone  Practice Svo,     *3  50 

Thorn,  C.,  and  Jones,  W.  H.     Telegraphic  Connections..  .  .oblong,  lamo,      150 

Thomas,  C.  W.     Paper-makers'  Handbook (In  Press.) 

Thomas,  J.  B.     Strength  of   Ships Svo,       ^  50 

Thomas,  Robt.  G.     Applied  Calculus i2mo   (In  Press.) 

Thompson,  A.  B.     Oil  Fields  of  Russia 4to,     *7  50 

Oil  Field  Development 7  50 

Thompson,  S.  P.     Dynamo  Electric  Machines.     (Science  Series  No.  75.) 

i6mo,      o  75 

Thompson,  W.  P.     Handbook  of  Patent  Law  of  All  Countries i6mo,     i  50 

Thomson,  G.    Modern  Sanitary  Engineering i2mo,     *3  oo 

Thomson,   G.  S.     Milk  and   Cream   Testing i2mo,     *2  25 

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Thurso,  J.  W.     Modern  Turbine  Practice Svo,  *4  oo 

Tidy,  C.  Meymott.    Treatment  of  Sewage.     (Science  Series  No.  94.) 

i6mo,  o  75 
Tillmans,   J.     Water   Purification   and    Sewage   Disposal.     Trans,    by 

Hugh  S.  Taylor Svo,  *?  oo 

Tinney,  W.  H.     Gold-mining  Machinery Svo,  *3  oo 

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Toch,  M.     Chemistry  and  Technology  of  Paints 8vo,  *4  oo 

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Tod,   J.,   and   McGibbon,   W.   C.     Marine   Engineers'    Board   of  Trade 

Examinations    8vo,  *2  oo 

Todd,  J.,  and  Whall,  W.  B.     Practical  Seamanship 8Vo,  8  oo 

Tonge,  J,     Coal.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Townsend,  F.     Alternating  Current  Engineering 8vo,  boards,  *o  75 

Townsend,  J.  S.     lonization  of  Gases  by  Collision 8vo,  *i  25 

Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers,     8vo. 

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Traverse  Tables.     (Science  Series  No.  1 15.) i6mo,  75 

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Treiber,  E.    Foundry  Machinery.    Trans,  by  C.  Salter i2mo,  oo 

Trinks,  W.,  and  Housum,  C.     Shaft  Governors.     (Science  Series  No.  122.) 

i6mo,  75 

Trowbridge,  W.  P.    Turbine  Wheels.    (Science  Series  No.  44.) ..  i6mo,  75 

Tucker,  J.  H.    A  Manual  of  Sugar  Analysis 8vo,  3  50 

Tunner,  P.  A.     Treatise  on  Roll-turning.     Trans,  by  J.  B.  Pearse. 

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Turnbull,  Jr.,  J.,  and  Robinson,  S.  W      A  Treatise  on  the  Compound 

Steam-engine.      (Science    Ser'es    No.    8.) i6mo,  o  75 

Turner,  H.    Worsted  Spinners'  Handbook i2mo,  *3  oo 

Turrill,  S.  M.     Elementary  Course  in  Perspective 12 mo,  *r  25 

Twyford,   H.   B.      Purchasing 8vo,  *3  oo 

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Underbill,  C.  R.     Solenoids,  Electromagnets  and  Electromagnetic  Wind- 
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Underwood,   N.,  and   Sullivan,   T.   V.     Chemistry   and   Technology   of 

Printing    Inks    8vo,  *3  oo 

Urquhart,  J.  W.     Electro-plating i2mo,  2  oo 

Electrotyping i2mo,  2  oo 

Usborne,  P.  O.  G.     Design  of  Simple  Steel  Bridges 8vo,  *4  oo 


Vacher,  F.    Food  Inspector's  Handbook  i2mo, 

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Van  Wagenen,  T.  F.     Manual  of  Hydraulic  Mining i6mo,       i  oo 

Vega,  Baron  Von.     Logarithmic  Tables 8vo,      2  50 

Vincent,  C.    Ammonia  and  its  Compounds.  Trans,  by  M.  J.  Salte:  8vo,    *2  50 

Volk,  C.     Haulage  and  Winding;  Appliances 8vo,     *4  °° 

Von  Georeievics,  G.     Chemical  Techno1o<ry  of  Textile  Fibres.     Trains. 

by  C.  Salter 8vo, 

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(New  Edition  in  Preparation.} 
Vose,  G.  L.     Graphic  Method  for  Solving  Certain  Questions  in  Arithmetic 

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Vosmaer,  A.     Ozone 8vo,     *2  50 


30        D-  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Wabner,  R.     Ventilation  in  Mines.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *s  oo 

Wade,  E.  J.     Secondary  Batteries 8vo,  *4  oo 

Wadmore,  T.  M.     Elementary  Chemical  Theory i2mo,  *i  50 

Wagner,    E.      Preserving   Fruits,    Vegetables,   and    Meat izmo,  *2  50 

Wagner,  J.  B.     A  Treatise  on  the  Natural  and  Artificial  Processes  of 

Wood    Seasoning 8vo,  3  oo 

Waldram,  P.  J.     Principles  of  Structural  Mechanics i2mo,  *3  oo 

Walker,  F.    Dynamo  Building.     (Science  Series  No.  98.) i6mo,  o  75 

Walker,  J.     Organic  Chemistry  for  Students  of  Medicine 8vo,  *$  oo 

Walker,  S.  F.     Steam  Boilers,  Engines  and  Turbines 8vo,  3  oo 

Refrigeration,  Heating  and  Ventilation  on  Shipboard i2mo,  *2  50 

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Electric    Wiring    and    Fitting 8vo,  250 

Wallis-Tayler,  A.  J.     Bearings  and  Lubrication 8vo,  *z  50 

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Preservation  of  Wood 8vo,  4  oo 

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Walsh,  J.  J.    Chemistry  and  Physics  of  Mining  and  Mine  Ventilation, 

I2H10,  *2    OO 

Wanklyn,  J.  A.    Water  Analysis i2mo,  2  oo 

Wansbrough,  W.  D.    The  A  B  C  of  the  Differential  Calculus i2mo,  *2  50 

Slide  Valves i2mo,  *2  oo 

Waring,  Jr.,  G.  E.   Sanitary  Conditions.    (Science  Series  No.  3i.).i6mo,  o  75 

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Modern  Methods  of  Sewage  Disposal i2mo,  2  oo 

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Warnes,  A.  R.     Coal  Tar  Distillation 8vo,  *$  oo 

Warren,  F.  D.    Handbook  on  Reinforced  Concrete i2mo,  *2  50 

Watkins,  A.     Photography.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *3  50 

Watson,  E.  P.    Small  Engines  and  Boilers i2mo,  i  25 

Watt,  A.     Electro-plating  and  Electro-refining  of  Metals 8vo,  *4  50 

Electro-metallurgy i2mo,  i  oo 

The  Art  of  Soap  Making 8vo,  3  oo 

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Webb,  H.  L.  Guide  to  the  Testing  of  Insulated  Wires  and  Cables. i2mo,  i  oo 

Webber,  W.  H.  Y.    Town  Gas.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *z  oo 

Wegmann,    Edward.      Conveyance    and    Distribution    of    Water    for 

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Weisbach,  J.    A  Manual  of  Theoretical  Mechanics 8vo,  *6  oo 

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Weisbach,  J.,  and  Herrmann,  G.     Mechanics  of  Air  Machinery 8vo,  *3  75 

Wells,   M.    B.     Steel   Bridge   Designing 8vo,  *2  50 

Wells,   Robt.     Ornamental    Confectionery i2mo,  3.  oo 

Weston,  E.  B.    Loss  of  Head  Due  to  Friction  of  Water  in  Pipes,  .izmo,  *i  50 

Wheatley,  0.     Ornamental  Cement  Work 8vo,  *2  25 

Whipple,  S.    An  Elementary  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Bridge  Building. 

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White,  C.  H.     Methods  of  Metallurgical  Analysis.     (Van  Nostrand's 

Textbooks.)     i2mo,  250 


D,  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO.'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  31 

White,  G.  F.    Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis i2mo,  *i  25 

White,  G.  T.     xootned  rearing i2mo,  *2  oo 

White,  H.  J.     Oil  Tank  Steamers 12010,  i  50 

Whitelaw,   John.      Surveying 8vo,  4  50 

Whittaker,  C.  M.     The  Application  of  the  Coal  Tar  Dyestuffs.  .  .8vo,  3  oo 

Widmer,  E.  J.     Military   Balloons 8vo,  3  oo 

Wilcox,  R.  M.     Cantilever  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  25.) . .  .i6mo,  o  75 

Wilda,  H.     Steam  Turbines.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter i2mo,  2  oo 

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Wilkinson,  H.  D.     Submarine  Cable  Laying  and  Repairing 8vo,  *6  oo 

Williamson,  J.     Surveying 8vo,  *3  oo 

Williamson,  R.  S.     On  the  Use  of  the  Barometer 4to,  15  oo 

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Wilson,  F.  J.,  and  Heilbron,  I.  M.    Chemical  Theory  and  Calculations. 

i2mo,  *i  25 

Wilson,  J.  F.    Essentials  of  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  2  50 

Wimperis,  H.  E.     Internal  Combustion  Engine 8vo,  *s  oo 

i Application  of  Power  to  Road  Transport i2mo,  *i  50 

Primer  of  Internal  Combustion  Engine i2mo,  *i  oo 

Winchell,  N.  H.,  and  A.  N.     Elements  of  Optical  Mineralogy 8vo,  *z  50 

Winslow,  A    Stadia  Surveying.     (Science  Series  No.  77.) i6mo,  o  75 

Wisser,  Lieut.  J.  P.     Explosive  Materials.     (Science  Series  No.  70.) 

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Modern  Gun  Cotton.     (Science  Series  No.  89.)    i6»o,  o  75 

Wolff,  C.  E.     Modern  Locomotive  Practice 8vo,  *4  20 

Wood,  De  V.    Luminiferous  Aether.     (Science  Series  No.  85.)..i6mo,  o  75 
Wood,  J.  K.     Chemistry  of  Dyeing.     (Chemical  Monographs  No.  2.) 

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Worden,  E.  C.     The  Nitrocellulose  Industry.     Two  Volumes 8vo,  *io  oo 

Technology  of  Cellulose  Esters.     In  10  volumes.     8vo. 

Vol.  VIII.     Cellulose  Acetate *5  oo 

Wren,  H.    Organometallic  Compounds  of  Zinc  and  Magnesium.    (Chem- 
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Wright,  A.  C.     Analysis  of  Oils  and  Allied  Substances 8vo,  *3  50 

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Wright,  F.  W.     Design  of  a   Condensing  Plant i2mo,  *i  50 

Wright,  H.  E.     Handy  Book  for  Brewers 8vo,  *6  oo 

Wright,  J.     Testing,  Fault  Finding,  etc.,  for  Wiremen.     (Installation 

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Wright,  T.  W.     Elements   of  Mechanics 8vo,  *2  50 

Wright,  T.  W.,  and  Hayford,  J.  F.    Adjustment  of  Observations.  ..8vo,  *3  oo 
Wynne,  W.  E.,  and  Sparagen,  W.     Handbook  of  Engineering  Mathe- 
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Yoder,  J.  H.,  and  Wharen,  G.  B.    Locomotive  Valves  and  Valve  Gears, 

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Young,  J.  E.     Electrical  Testing  for  Telegraph  Engineers 8vo,  *4  oo 

Young,   R.   B.     The  Banket 8vo,  3  50 

Youngson.     Slide  Valve  and  Valve  Gears 8vo,  3  oo 

Zahner,  R.     Transmission  of  Power.     (Science  Series  No.  40.)..i6mo, 

Zeidler,  J.,  and  Lustgarten,  J.     Electric  Arc  Lamps 8vo,  *2  oo 

Zeuner,  A.     Technical  Thermodynamics.    Trans,  by  J.  F.  Klein.    Two 

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Zipser,  J.     Textile  Raw  Materials.    Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *5  oo 

Zur  Nedden,  F.    Engineering  Workshop  Machines  and  Processes.  Trans. 

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